Post-2020 Biodiversity Research Articles

Beyond the 'Protected Area' Paradigm in Conservation: Exploring India's Forest Legislation as a New Conservation Model for Developing Countries.

To achieve global biodiversity targets, expanding protected area (PA) networks has been regarded as a major strategy in international commitments. However, the PA strategy often fails to achieve its objective - preserving biodiversity and ecosystem services. In addition, the expansion of PA areas could replicate and amplify historical injustices such as forced evictions, state-led physical violence, assimilation of culture and loss of traditional ecological knowledge, affecting communities' livelihood, quality of life and rights. There is an increasing consensus that the post-2020 biodiversity conservation framework should be rights-based and sensitive to the role and contributions of local communities towards achieving the PAs' targets. India's Forest Rights Act (FRA) 2006 may be considered a useful framework for biodiversity conservation in the context of this new conservation vision. It puts local people at the centre stage, making them active participants in designing and managing conservation. PAs following 'fortress conservation' approach were based on the flawed idea that human interference endangers biodiversity and therefore habitats should be preserved by force if required. Such an idea contradicts the recent understanding that ecosystems once perceived as 'wilderness', have been transformed by people. PAs undermine the intricate and intertwined relationship of humans with their immediate ecosystem. The conservation model proposed by FRA 2006, on the other hand, recognises local communities as an integral part of ecosystem and thereby acknowledges people's rights and agency in conservation. It ensures locals' equitable benefits from economic activities, and provides equitable opportunities to participate in decision-making. Though various provisions under FRA empowered local people in conservation, it faces various challenges during the implementation on the ground. It is argued that a clear and appropriate institutional arrangement specifying various stakeholders' power, roles and responsibilities in the conservation and management of bioresources (including the protection of endangered species) should be developed for transformative change in biodiversity conservation.

Mining threats in high-level biodiversity conservation policies.

Amid a global infrastructure boom, there is increasing recognition of the ecological impacts of the extraction and consumption of construction minerals, mainly processed as concrete, including significant and expanding threats to global biodiversity. We investigated how high-level national and international biodiversity conservation policies address mining threats, with a special focus on construction minerals. We conducted a review and quantified the degree to which threats from mining these minerals are addressed in biodiversity goals and targets under the 2011-2020 and post-2020 biodiversity strategies, national biodiversity strategies and action plans, and the assessments of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Mining appeared rarely in national targets but more frequently in national strategies. Yet, in most countries, it was superficially addressed. Coverage of aggregates mining was greater than coverage of limestone mining. We outline 8 key components, tailored for a wide range of actors, to effectively mainstream biodiversity conservation into the extractive, infrastructure, and construction sectors. Actions include improving reporting and monitoring systems, enhancing the evidence base around mining impacts on biodiversity, and modifying the behavior of financial agents and businesses. Implementing these measures could pave the way for a more sustainable approach to construction mineral use and safeguard biodiversity.

Geographical patterns and determinants of insect biodiversity in China.

Insects play important roles in the maintenance of ecosystem functioning and the provision of livelihoods for millions of people. However, compared with terrestrial vertebrates and angiosperms, such as the giant panda, crested ibis, and the metasequoia, insect conservation has not attracted enough attention, and a basic understanding of the geographical biodiversity patterns for major components of insects in China is lacking. Herein, we investigated the geographical distribution of insect biodiversity across multiple dimensions (taxonomic, genetic, and phylogenetic diversity) based on the spatial distribution and molecular DNA sequencing data of insects. Our analysis included 18 orders, 360 families, 5,275 genera, and 14,115 species of insects. The results revealed that Southwestern and Southeastern China harbored higher insect biodiversity and numerous older lineages, representing a museum, whereas regions located in Northwestern China harbored lower insect biodiversity and younger lineages, serving as an evolutionary cradle. We also observed that mean annual temperature and precipitation had significantly positive effects, whereas altitude had significantly negative effects on insect biodiversity in most cases. Moreover, cultivated vegetation harbored the highest insect taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity, and needleleaf and broadleaf mixed forests harbored the highest insect genetic diversity. These results indicated that human activities may positively contribute to insect spatial diversity on a regional scale. Our study fills a knowledge gap in insect spatial diversity in China. These findings could help guide national-level conservation plans and the post-2020 biodiversity conservation framework.

Fragmentation of Key Biodiversity Areas highlights attention to human disturbance patterns

Faced with a global biodiversity crisis, we need to concentrate our collective efforts on safeguarding Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs), which serve as essential habitats for the world's threatened species. Clarifying the disturbance and protection requirements of KBAs is vital to the global persistence of biodiversity, which is not yet clear. Here, we evaluated the extent and severity of human disturbance in KBAs. Specifically, we analyzed the spatial patterns of disturbance and their potential effects on habitats. Roughly a quarter of terrestrial KBAs are challenged by crop production and urban construction activities, especially in Europe. The mean Human Footprint Index (HFI) for KBAs worldwide is 12.3, indicating a high level of human disturbance. On average, 62 % of each KBA is identified as Human Threatened Areas, signifying intense human impacts on these areas. 57 % of KBAs are subdivided by human disturbance, which can lead to substantial habitat fragmentation and loss of connectivity compared to other forms of disturbance. The halving of mean patch size and the tripling of the perimeter-area ratio for active habitats in KBAs provide evidence of the difficulties faced in conserving these areas. More importantly, increased coverage of Protected Areas fails to reduce HFI in KBAs, indicating some deficiencies in current protection systems. Therefore, we emphasize the importance of focusing on disturbance patterns for more impactful interventions, which potentially offer new pathways to mitigate adverse habitat impacts in post-2020 biodiversity conservation efforts.

Deep sea nature-based solutions to climate change

The deep sea (below 200 m depth) is the largest carbon sink on Earth. It hosts abundant biodiversity that underpins the carbon cycle and provides provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural ecosystem services. There is growing attention to climate-regulating ocean ecosystem services from the scientific, business and political sectors. In this essay we synthesize the unique biophysical, socioeconomic and governance characteristics of the deep sea to critically assess opportunities for deep-sea blue carbon to mitigate climate change. Deep-sea blue carbon consists of carbon fluxes and storage including carbon transferred from the atmosphere by the inorganic and organic carbon pumps to deep water, carbon sequestered in the skeletons and bodies of deep-sea organisms, carbon buried within sediments or captured in carbonate rock. However, mitigating climate change through deep-sea blue carbon enhancement suffers from lack of scientific knowledge and verification, technological limitations, potential environmental impacts, a lack of cooperation and collaboration, and underdeveloped governance. Together, these issues suggest that deep-sea climate change mitigation is limited. Thus, we suggest that a strong focus on blue carbon is too limited a framework for managing the deep sea to contribute to international goals, including the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the Paris Agreement and the post-2020 Biodiversity Goals. Instead, the deep sea can be viewed as a more holistic nature-based solution, including many ecosystem services and biodiversity in addition to climate. Environmental impact assessments (EIAs), area-based management, pollution reduction, moratoria, carbon accounting and fisheries management are tools in international treaties that could help realize benefits from deep-sea, nature-based solutions.

Reconciling Nature-Technology-Child Connections: Smart Cities and the Necessity of a New Paradigm of Nature-Sensitive Technologies for Today’s Children

There is a serious and problematic disconnection between children and the natural environment. This has been documented across various disciplines and fields of endeavour, including science, the creative arts, the social sciences, education, design, and the humanities. The nature–people disconnection is particularly concerning at this present juncture when understanding and advocating for the natural environment is necessary to address global environmental crises. Smart cities have, to date, focused on business and economic directions. In recent times, there has been an emerging awareness that such technologically advanced urban environments must link to and inspire an understanding and care for nature in more profound and meaningful ways. Therefore, this paper aims to identify opportunities and discuss how technology can improve this interaction through advancing and implementing nature-positive and nature-sensitive technologies through a critical review of the literature spanning smart cities, children, and nature-based technologies. Such linkages can serve as a driving force behind the transformation of cities as they adapt to support initiatives, such as the post-2020 biodiversity agenda.

Post-2020 biodiversity framework challenged by cropland expansion in protected areas

Post-2020 biodiversity framework challenged by cropland expansion in protected areas

Inventory and Risk Analysis of Naturalized Exotic Species from the Cibodas Botanical Garden Collection Recorded in the Remnant Forest of Cibodas

B Botanic Gardens cultivates exotic species for the purpose of ornamental plants. Moreover, these exotic species have the probability to escape the garden area and naturalized in adjacent forests. Cibodas Botanical Garden (CBG) is adjacent to four remnant forests: Jalan akar, Bengkel, Lumut, and Wornojiwo forests. There are several reports of naturalized CBG collections in Wornojiwo, thus this study does the inventory of naturalized exotic CBG collections in Cibodas remnant forests and perform Tropical Weed Risk Assessment Protocol (TWRAP) of these species. We found 26 CBG exotic species naturalized in remnant forests and more naturalized exotic species in Lumut and Jalan Akar forests than Wornojiwo and Bengkel forests. We presumed the topographic condition in Bengkel forest inhibit the spread of exotic species, meanwhile Jalan akar forest was located in the center area of CBG therefore holds the greatest number of naturalized exotic species. We found the domination of Chimonobambusa qudrangularis in Wornojiwo forest inhibiting other exotic species growth. The largest figure of the naturalized species belong to the family of Asteraceae, followed by Solanaceae, Marantaceae, Fabaceae, and Acanthaceae. The TWRAP assessment score results of the 81% naturalized species were above 10. Therefore TWRAP can be used as an early screening for botanic gardens exotic species naturalization probability. CBG commits to support the post-2020 biodiversity CBD target, with this inventory CBG can monitor the spread of CBG exotic plant collections that threaten native plant diversity and prevent future spreading of other exotic species.

Current trends suggest most Asian countries are unlikely to meet future biodiversity targets on protected areas

Aichi Target 11 committed governments to protect ≥17% of their terrestrial environments by 2020, yet it was rarely achieved, raising questions about the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework goal to protect 30% by 2030. Asia is a challenging continent for such targets, combining high biodiversity with dense human populations. Here, we evaluated achievements in Asia against Aichi Target 11. We found that Asia was the most underperforming continent globally, with just 13.2% of terrestrial protected area (PA) coverage, averaging 14.1 ± SE 1.8% per country in 2020. 73.1% of terrestrial ecoregions had <17% representation and only 7% of PAs even had an assessment of management effectiveness. We found that a higher agricultural land in 2015 was associated with lower PA coverage today. Asian countries also showed a remarkably slow average annual pace of 0.4 ± SE 0.1% increase of PA extent. These combined lines of evidence suggest that the ambitious 2030 targets are unlikely to be achieved in Asia unless the PA coverage to increase 2.4-5.9 times faster. We provided three recommendations to support Asian countries to meet their post-2020 biodiversity targets: complete reporting and the wider adoption “other effective area-based conservation measures”; restoring disturbed landscapes; and bolstering transboundary PAs.

Assessing the performance of the pilot national parks in China

The continuous decline of global biodiversity highlights the need for the expansion and improved performance of protected areas (PAs) to achieve the Post-2020 Biodiversity Targets and 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. China proposed the establishment of a national park (NP) system and carried out transformative explorations in 10 pilot NPs, however, it is unclear to what extent the pilot NPs represent China’s biodiversity and resolve management issues. To answer this question, we assessed the performance of the pilot NPs by analyzing the representativeness across typical ecosystems, biodiversity priority areas, and ecosystem services, and by analyzing the management effectiveness of reorganizing the existing PAs and improving the management intensity and man-land relationships. We found that China’s pilot NPs achieved improved representativeness and management effectiveness through range expansion and optimization, institution streamlining, and cohesive management. Compared with the existing PAs, the area of protected typical ecosystems, biodiversity priority areas, and key areas of ecosystem services in the 10 pilot NPs increased by 59.6%, 59.6%, and 54.1% on average, respectively, with a similar land cost overall. The 10 pilot NPs integrated 142 existing PAs of seven categories. The protected areas expanded by 19.4%, and the area under strict protection increased by 42.1%. Additionally, the pilot NPs effectively reduced human disturbance and improved management effectiveness through necessary relocation and enhanced land management. Moving forward, the boundaries and zoning of the NPs should be further optimized, and efforts should be directed to strengthen the governing capacity building, improve the legislation system, increase the financing investment, and promote the value realization of ecological products.

An ecosystem-based system of variables to enhance marine species and habitat monitoring and conservation: The Adriatic Natura 2000 case study

Implementing effective marine monitoring to detect and track ecosystem shifts, biodiversity alteration, and habitat loss is one of the most crucial challenges to meet the objectives set out by the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework and by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The lack of coordinated and harmonized monitoring frameworks at different spatial scales and their weakness in accounting for ecological processes, due to incomplete sets of monitoring variables, strongly hinder the achievement of conservation objectives. Here, we propose an approach to build a coherent ecosystem-based system of monitoring variables for target marine species and habitats. The approach is designed to integrate the existing monitoring frameworks set up by the Water and the Marine Strategy Framework directives, and the Essential Ocean and Biodiversity Variables, with the aim to contribute to their harmonization and implementation. Furthermore, by embracing a holistic vision, it aims to incorporate ecological processes and socio-ecological aspects, considering the benefits of public engagement through citizen science, and of the ecosystem services approach for policies’ implementation. The study stems from the Ecological Observing System of the Adriatic Sea (ECOAdS), which was developed in the framework of the Interreg Italy-Croatia project ECOSS, using as exemplary monitoring test cases two relevant conservation targets for Natura 2000 sites of the Adriatic Sea, the common bottlenose dolphin and seagrass meadows. We test the potential of this approach in guiding the prioritization of monitoring variables under ecosystem-based criteria, and provide insights into the benefits delivered by an integrated system of observatories’ networks and monitoring frameworks to support marine conservation at both local and regional scales. The proposed approach can be transferred to other contexts and scales to help build a common knowledge and monitoring framework for conservation and management strategies, saving costs by relying on available resources and on consolidated and long-lasting approaches that might converge towards global initiatives.

A Protected Area Connectivity Evaluation and Strategy Development Framework for Post-2020 Biodiversity Conservation

Maintaining and improving the connectivity of protected areas (PAs) is essential for biodiversity conservation. The Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) aims to expand the coverage of well-connected PAs and other effective area-based conservation measures to 30% by 2030. We proposed a framework to evaluate the connectivity of PAs and developed strategies to maintain and improve the connectivity of PAs based on PA connectivity indicators, and we applied this framework to China’s terrestrial PAs. We considered that the concept of PA connectivity is at the level of both PA patches and PA networks, including four aspects: intra-patch connectivity, inter-patch connectivity, network connectivity, and PA–landscape connectivity. We found that among China’s 2153 terrestrial PA patches, only 427 had good intra-patch connectivity, and their total area accounted for 11.28% of China’s land area. If inter-patch connectivity, network connectivity, and PA–landscape connectivity were taken as the criteria to evaluate PA connectivity, respectively, then the coverage of well-connected terrestrial PAs in China was only 4.07%, 8.30%, and 5.92%, respectively. Only seven PA patches have good connectivity of all four aspects, covering only 2.69% of China’s land. The intra-patch, inter-patch, network, and PA–landscape connectivity of China’s terrestrial PA network reached 93.41%, 35.40%, 58.43%, and 8.58%, respectively. These conclusions indicated that there is still a big gap between China’s PA connectivity and the Post-2020 GBF target, which urgently needs to be improved. We identified PA patches and PA networks of ecological zones that need to improve PA connectivity and identified improvement priorities for them. We also identified priority areas for connectivity restoration in existing PAs, potential ecological corridors between PAs, and priority areas for PA expansion to improve the connectivity of PAs in China. Application of our framework elsewhere should help governments and policymakers reach ambitious biodiversity conservation goals at national and global scales.

Reversing the Decline in Threatened Species through Effective Conservation Planning

Despite the committed action by many in past decades, recent reviews show little progress in slowing species declines, and future waves of extinction are predicted. Not only do such declines signal a failure to meet international commitments to stem biodiversity loss and undermine the potential for achievement of the species-related target in the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework, but they also jeopardize our ability to achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, many of which rely on the resources provided by species and the ecosystems they support. A substantial increase in ambition and the application of tools at the global scale and across all elements of the species conservation cycle—Assess, Plan, and Act—is urgently needed to create swift and lasting positive change for species. Well-resourced, effectively implemented species conservation plans play a key role in meeting this challenge. Here, the IUCN SSC Conservation Planning Specialist Group (CPSG) presents a proven approach to species conservation planning that emphasizes the thoughtful design and facilitation of collaborative processes that feature the rigorous scientific analysis of quantitative data on species biology and impacts of anthropogenic threats and their mitigation through management. When incorporated from the beginning of a species management project, the CPSG’s principles and steps for conservation planning can help reverse the decline of threatened species.

Mainstreaming post-2020 biodiversity through science communication and education

Mainstreaming post-2020 biodiversity through science communication and education

Integrated spatial planning for biodiversity conservation and food production

Integrated spatial planning for biodiversity conservation and food production

High rates of short-term dynamics of forest ecosystem services

Currently, the main tools for assessing and managing ecosystem services at large scales are maps providing snapshots of their potential supply. However, many ecosystems change over short timescales; thus, such maps soon become inaccurate. Here we show high rates of short-term dynamics of three key forest ecosystem services: wood production, bilberry production and topsoil carbon storage. Almost 85% of the coldspots and 65% of the hotspots for these services had changed into a different state over a ten-year period. Wood production showed higher rates of short-term dynamics than bilberry production and carbon storage. The high rates of dynamics mean that static snapshot ecosystem service maps provide limited information for assessing and managing multifunctional, dynamic landscapes, such as forests. We advocate that dynamic, spatially explicit tools to assess and manage ecosystem service dynamics be further developed and applied in post-2020 biodiversity and ecosystem service policy supporting frameworks.

Biodiversity conservation in a changing environment beyond 2020.

Yonglong Lu James M. Bullock The massive and ongoing loss of biodiversity comprises a social and environmental emergency that the world’s governments must urgently address. The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) global assessment has warned that biodiversity is declining faster than at any time in human history. To this end, the 15th Conference of Parties (COP 15) for Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Kunming, China this October will focus on developing a post-2020 global biodiversity framework to replace the 2011–2020 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets). Given the failure to meet previous policy targets, how can the global scientific community provide strong science-based evidence to improve biodiversity conservation as well as address conflicts with the demands of an increasing human population? In this special collection, leading conservation scientists identify grand challenges for biodiversity conservation, conflicts, and trade-offs between conservation and the exploitation of natural resources, and strategies for sustainable utilization and management of biodiversity at global, regional, or national scales. A solid science foundation can better inform recommendations for the development and implementation of the post-2020 Biodiversity Agenda. The special collection papers contribute to this grand aim, by providing insights into the following issues. While the roles of individual threats to biodiversity, including climate change, habitat loss, and pollution, are well documented, much less is known …

Genetic diversity is considered important but interpreted narrowly in country reports to the Convention on Biological Diversity: Current actions and indicators are insufficient

International agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) have committed to conserve, and sustainably and equitably use, biodiversity. The CBD is a vital instrument for global conservation because it guides 195 countries and the European Union in setting priorities and allocating resources, and requires regular reporting on progress. However, the CBD and similar policy agreements have often neglected genetic diversity. This is a critical gap because genetic diversity underlies adaptation to environmental change and ecosystem resilience. Here we aim to inform future policy, monitoring, and reporting efforts focused on limiting biodiversity loss by conducting the largest yet evaluation of how Parties to the CBD report on genetic diversity. A large, globally representative sample of 114 CBD National Reports was examined to assess reported actions, progress, values and indicators related to genetic diversity. Although the importance of genetic diversity is recognized by most Parties to the CBD, genetic diversity targets mainly addressed variation within crops and livestock (a small fraction of all species). Reported actions to conserve genetic diversity primarily concerned ex situ facilities and legislation, rather than monitoring and in situ intervention. The most commonly reported status indicators are not well correlated to maintaining genetic diversity. Lastly, few reports mentioned genetic monitoring using DNA data, indigenous use and knowledge of genetic diversity, or development of strategies to conserve genetic diversity. We make several recommendations for the post-2020 CBD Biodiversity Framework, and similar efforts such as IPBES, to improve awareness, assessment, and monitoring of genetic diversity, and facilitate consistent and complete reporting in the future.

Post-2020 aspirations for biodiversity

Post-2020 aspirations for biodiversity

Revisiting species and areas of interest for conserving global mammalian phylogenetic diversity

Various prioritisation strategies have been developed to cope with accelerating biodiversity loss and limited conservation resources. These strategies could become more engaging for decision-makers if they reflected the positive effects conservation can have on future projected biodiversity, by targeting net positive outcomes in future projected biodiversity, rather than reflecting the negative consequences of further biodiversity losses only. Hoping to inform the post-2020 biodiversity framework, we here apply this approach of targeting net positive outcomes in future projected biodiversity to phylogenetic diversity (PD) to re-identify species and areas of interest for conserving global mammalian PD. We identify priority species/areas as those whose protection would maximise gains in future projected PD. We also identify loss-significant species/areas as those whose/where extinction(s) would maximise losses in future projected PD. We show that our priority species/areas differ from loss-significant species/areas. While our priority species are mostly similar to those identified by the EDGE of Existence Programme, our priority areas generally differ from previously-identified ones for global mammal conservation. We further highlight that these newly-identified species/areas of interest currently lack protection and offer some guidance for their future management.