Cannabis Possession Research Articles

Regulatory Framework for Cannabis: A Position Paper From the American College of Physicians.

Cannabis, also known as marijuana, is the dried flowers, stems, seeds, and leaves of the Cannabis sativa plant. It contains more than 100 compounds, including tetrahydrocannabinol, which has psychoactive effects. Federal law prohibits the possession, distribution, and use of cannabis outside limited research activities, but most states have legalized cannabis for medical or recreational use. However, research into the potential therapeutic and adverse health effects of cannabis has been limited, in part because of the drug's federal legal status. In this position paper, the American College of Physicians (ACP) calls for the decriminalization of possession of small amounts of cannabis for personal use and outlines a public health approach to controlling cannabis in jurisdictions where it is legal. ACP recommends the rigorous evaluation of the health effects and potential therapeutic uses of cannabis and cannabinoids as well as research into the effects of legalization on cannabis use. It also calls for evidence-based medical education related to cannabis and increased resources for treatment of cannabis use disorder.

Road safety implications of the partial legalisation of cannabis in Germany: protocol for a quasi-experimental study

IntroductionGermany is reforming its legal approach to cannabis, allowing the possession and cultivation of cannabis for recreational purposes. The objective of this study is to investigate the impact of the...

Recreational Cannabis and Recriminalization in the “Emerald Triangle”

Cannabis had been illicitly cultivated for over half a century in the isolated tri‐county region of far northern California known in drugs lore as the “Emerald Triangle.” The regional industry gained legitimacy and experienced a significant boom in the 1990s when California legalized medical cannabis. In 2016, California legalized cannabis possession, use, and cultivation generally, and recreational sales for adults aged 21+ began in 2018. Drawing from 95 archived news reports published between 2018 and 2022 on California's move to legalize recreational cannabis as experienced in Humboldt County – the most populous in the region – I highlight how recreational legalization has invited opportunities for “soft” criminalization, while further legitimating the spectacle of police intervention into the illicit cannabis market. Soft criminalization has occurred via an onerous labyrinth of permitting laws that place untenable financial pressure on legacy cannabis growers. Entrenched forms of criminalization remain dependent on the trope of dangerous drug gangs, violence, and supposed ecological devastation.

Recreational cannabis legalization and immigration enforcement: a state-level analysis of arrests and deportations in the United States, 2009–2020

BackgroundRecreational cannabis laws (RCL) in the United States (US) can have important implications for people who are non-citizens, including those with and without formal documentation, and those who are refugees or seeking asylum. For these groups, committing a cannabis-related infraction, even a misdemeanor, can constitute grounds for status ineligibility, including arrest and deportation under federal immigration policy—regardless of state law. Despite interconnections between immigration and drug policy, the potential impacts of increasing state cannabis legalization on immigration enforcement are unexplored.MethodsIn this repeated cross-sectional analysis, we tested the association between state-level RCL adoption and monthly, state-level prevalence of immigration arrests and deportations related to cannabis possession. Data were from the Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse. Immigration arrest information was available from Oct-2014 to May-2018 and immigration deportation information were available from Jan-2009 to Jun-2020 for. To test associations with RCLs, we fit Poisson fixed effects models that controlled for pre-existing differences between states, secular trends, and potential sociodemographic, sociopolitical, and setting-related confounders. Sensitivity analyses explored potential violations to assumptions and sensitivity to modeling specifications.ResultsOver the observation period, there were 7,739 immigration arrests and 48,015 deportations referencing cannabis possession. By 2020, 12 stated adopted recreational legalization and on average immigration enforcement was lower among RCL compared to non-RCL states. In primary adjusted models, we found no meaningful changes in arrest prevalence, either immediately following RCL adoption (Prevalence Ratio [PR]: 0.84; [95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 0.57, 1.11]), or 1-year after the law was effective (PR: 0.88 [CI: 0.56, 1.20]). For the deportation outcome, however, RCL adoption was associated with a moderate relative decrease in deportation prevalence in RCL versus non-RCL states (PR: 0.68 [CI: 0.56, 0.80]; PR 1-year lag: 0.68 [CI: 0.54, 0.82]). Additional analyses were mostly consistent by suggested some sensitivities to modeling specification.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that decreasing penalties for cannabis possession through state RCLs may reduce some aspects of immigration enforcement related to cannabis possession. Greater attention to the immigration-related consequences of current drug control policies is warranted, particularly as more states weigh the public health benefits and drawbacks of legalizing cannabis.

Opening Pandora’s box: the making of cannabis tourism in Thailand

In 2022, Thailand became the first country in Asia to decriminalize the possession of cannabis. Despite the government’s unwillingness to legalize recreational cannabis or promote cannabis tourism, a recreational cannabis industry fueled by tourism quickly emerged on a large scale in just a few months after decriminalization. Through the tourism worldmaking theory, the article seeks to show how cannabis tourism has taken shape in a semi-legal context following the decriminalization of cannabis in Thailand. Through a qualitative methodology combining document analysis, semi-structured interviews, and active participant observation, it is shown that following legislative changes, a recreational tourism industry has rapidly developed alongside the medical cannabis industry in which an array of cannabis products and services for tourists have emerged in the country’s major tourist destinations, transforming the tourism landscape of these places. Cannabis tourism has grown rapidly despite legal restrictions and government rhetoric aimed at preventing recreational cannabis tourism. The article aims to show that after opening Pandora’s box through the decriminalization of cannabis, cannabis tourism has developed on its own where many market-driven actors capitalized on this new economic opportunity following years of loss of income due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Assessing the Impact of Cannabis Decriminalization on Racial Disparities in Chicago’s Cannabis Possession Arrests

Black and Hispanic neighborhoods have suffered the most severe consequences of the “war on drugs.” As the war on drugs waned, cannabis legalization/decriminalization efforts increased across America. A prime example of decriminalization occurred in August of 2012 as the City of Chicago introduced a new law providing officers with option to ticket, rather than arrest, individuals caught in possession of 15 grams of cannabis or less. As cannabis policy continues evolving, it remains to be seen whether or not the trend toward decriminalization will produce equitable changes in drug arrest outcomes across racial/ethnic groups. We employ data tracking cannabis arrests over time by neighborhood to assess the impact of cannabis decriminalization in Chicago and estimate racial disparities in the likelihood of arrest (v. ticket) using two sets of models: within-neighborhood models and hierarchical logistic regressions with random effects. We find that Blacks and non-White Hispanics are more likely to be arrested than ticketed for minor cannabis possession in Chicago following the introduction of the Alternative Cannabis Enforcement (ACE) program, regardless of the neighborhood where the arrest took place. In addition, Black neighborhoods did not experience the same reduction in arrests after the law changed in comparison with racially mixed, White, or predominantly Hispanic neighborhoods. Our findings draw attention to the differential deployment of discretionary policing strategies across neighborhoods of different racial/ethnic composition. Although Chicago’s ACE program has lowered the overall rate of cannabis arrests, major racial/ethnic disparities in those arrests remain and become exacerbated when examining macro neighborhood-level trends.

Relationships Between Alcohol and Cannabis Policies in U.S. States, 1999-2019.

A crucial question regarding the public health impacts of cannabis legalization is its impact on alcohol consumption and alcohol-related harm. However, little is known about whether these changing cannabis policies are occurring in liberal or in restrictive alcohol policy environments, either of which likely affect public health outcomes. We constructed comprehensive state-level alcohol and cannabis policy indices and explored relationships between them. We assessed relationships between the Alcohol Policy Scale (APS) and the Cannabis Policy Scale (CPS) from 1999 to 2019. The APS and CPS were based on 29 and 17 state-level policies, respectively, and each policy was weighted for its relative efficacy and degree of state-year implementation. From 1999 to 2019, average state APS scores increased modestly (became more restrictive) by 4.11 points (2019 M = 43.23, range: 24.44-66.31) and average CPS scores decreased (became less restrictive) by 15.33 points (2019 M = 76.40, range: 29.40-95.74) on a 100-point scale. In 2019, average APS scores were similar among states that prohibited (criminalized) possession of cannabis (42.00), decriminalized possession (41.33), legalized medical cannabis (44.36), and legalized recreational cannabis (43.32). Across states, there was no correlation between the restrictiveness of state-level alcohol and cannabis policies (r = .03, p = .37) in unadjusted models, although there was some variation by time, geographic region, and political party, with a weak negative correlation in state fixed-effects models. Although cannabis policies liberalized rapidly from 1999 to 2019, alcohol policies stayed relatively stable and did not differ by degree of cannabis policy liberalization. In general, there were weak associations between cannabis and alcohol policies among states; however, there was some temporal, regional, and political variation.

Characterization and evaluation of nine Cannabis sativa chloroplast SNP markers for crop type determination and biogeographical origin on European samples

Cannabis sativa can be classified in two main types, according to psychotropic cannabinoid ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆9-THC) content: the drug-type and the fiber-type. According to the European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction, most of the European Union countries consider the possession of cannabis, for personal use, a minor offense with possibility of incarceration. Despite of the model of legal supply (i.e., Spanish cannabis clubs, Netherlands coffee shops) or medical use (i.e., Italy), cannabis remains the most used and trafficked illicit plant in the European Union. Differentiating cannabis crops or tracing the biogeographical origin is crucial for law enforcement purposes. Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) markers may assist to determine biogeographic origin and to differentiate hemp from marijuana. This research aims: to identify and to evaluate nine C. sativa cpDNA polymorphic SNP sites to differentiate crop type and to provide information about its biogeographical origin. Five SNaPshot™ assays for nine chloroplast markers were developed and conducted in marijuana samples seized in Chile, the USA-Mexico border and Spain, and hemp samples grown in Spain and in Italy. The SNapShot™ assays were tested on 122 cannabis samples, which included 16 blind samples, and were able to differentiate marijuana crop type from hemp crop type in all samples. Using phylogenetic analysis, genetic differences were observed between marijuana and hemp samples. Moreover, principal component analysis (PCA) supported the relationship among hemp samples, as well as for USA-Mexico border, Spanish, and Chilean marijuana samples. Genetic differences between groups based on the biogeographical origin and their crop type were observed. Increasing the number of genetic markers, including the most recently studied ones, and expanding the sample database will provide more accurate information about crop differentiation and biogeographical origin.

Cannabis regulatory system in European Union countries, forensic concept of "doping dose" and medico-legal implications.

Cannabis is the most widely used illicit psychoactive substance in the world. In recent years, in many European Union countries, there has been a decriminalisation of the use and personal possession of cannabis for recreational purposes. There has been a spread of medical cannabis, as well as marketing of cannabis products at low concentrations of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta-9-THC), the major chemical to which cannabis owes its psychotropic effect. The percentage limit of this substance, only recently set by the European Court of Justice, must be distinguished from the "doping dose" of Delta-9-THC, namely, the dose which causes psychotropic effect in the consumer. Our study analyses and summarises the regulations in the countries of the European Union on the penalisation of recreational cannabis, the legalisation of medical cannabis and limits on percentage of THC imposed locally. Based on the analysis of a recent judgment of the Italian Supreme Court of Cassation, we discuss the importance of the role of the forensic toxicologist in the scientific definition of "doping dose". The distinction between the doping dose of THC and the percentage of THC contained in the marketed cannabis product is vital when establishing fair punishment in the event of a crime.

Twitter activity surrounding the Finnish green party's cannabis legalisation proposal: A mixed-methods analysis.

Background: In September 2021, a Finnish political party, the Greens, voted to include cannabis policy reform in their party programme, which would legalise the use, possession, manufacture and sale of cannabis. A rapid public discussion has emerged on different social media platforms, including Twitter. Methods: We downloaded 10 days of Twitter data and prepared it for further text analysis, including sentiment, topic modelling and thematic content analysis. Results: Before the proposal, the average daily number of tweets was approximately 140. However, during the week of the proposal, there was a significant increase in tweet volume, reaching a peak of 6,600 tweets on a single day, with a daily average of over 2,700 tweets. Sentiment analysis showed that during the public discussion, the sentiment scores of the tweets were more likely to be positive. Through topic modelling analysis, we obtained the weight of the topic for each tweet, which enabled us to identify the most representative tweets in our corpus. To narrow the sample size for content analysis, we selected tweets that had a topic percentage distribution of over 0.95 (N=188) for closer thematic content analysis. Several positive and negative themes emerged, which were then categorised under broader topics. Similar themes were identified in the most retweeted, liked and commented tweets, which came mainly from known public figures, including politicians, health experts and NGO leaders. Conclusion: Our results show that the discussion was not limited to cannabis legalisation, but instead covered a variety of topics related to drug policy.

Social Justice and Medical Equity through Federal Legalization of Marijuana

Most Americans are living with state-sanctioned cannabis jurisdiction permitting medicinal, and often, recreational use. Yet, cannabis and its cannabinoids remain on schedule-I of the controlled substances act (CSA), imposing hurdles to much needed research and promulgating outdated ‘War on Drugs’ policies and their disproportionate impact on minorities. Recent advances by the current government to decriminalize past federal cannabis possession convictions and the encouragement to State Governors to follow suit are within the current political climate and public opinion but fall short during times of an ever- faster expansion of cannabis legislation and access by the individual states. Opposing views on federal cannabis legalization have precipitated an indeterminate situation between federal and state legislation prompting inconsistent decision-making, social injustice, and health inequities across the country. The latter can be exemplified by the inconsistencies of qualifying conditions and availability of cannabis for medicinal use. Now, under the new 118th U.S. Congress, it becomes ever more important to re-focus on legislative opportunities such as the ‘Marijuana Opportunity Reinvestment and Expungement (MORE) Act of 2021’ which had been previously passed by the House of Representatives on April 1st, 2022, under the 117th Congress (2021-22). This bill aims to de-schedule and decriminalize use, possession, distribution, sale, and production of medical cannabis on the federal level. Through establishing cannabis business equity and loan programs, it seeks to promote social justice for communities disproportionately affected by the ‘War on Drugs’. This health policy research brief provides a comprehensive view of stakeholder perspectives and positions, as well as potential benefits and drawbacks - all with a historical perspective.

‘What discretion do you need?’ Factors influencing police decision-making in possession of cannabis offences

Research suggests that those most likely to be policed for cannabis possession are young, ethnically minoritised, urban males belonging to ‘suspect’ groups. This study examined police decision-making in cannabis possession cases in a Northern England force. Findings demonstrate that, outside of a few cases in which cannabis was being used in public, the policing of cannabis in this force area most often involved ‘accidental’ discovery, in the sense that the original interest in individuals or vehicles was not related to cannabis possession, but was rather based on ‘suspicion formation’ concerning certain types of car, behaviours, people and locations. Once detected, officers felt obliged to take action due to pressure from the public and managers, the harms they associated with cannabis and because the smell of cannabis made its public use difficult to ignore. There was little evidence of informal responses to cannabis suggesting a shift towards policing driven by force guidelines. However, guidelines differ, meaning that people who receive a criminal record in some force areas would not be criminalised in others. The consequences of having such a record suggest that achieving consistency in the policing of cannabis should prioritised.

Adolescent Cannabis Use During a Period of Rapid Policy Change: Evidence From the PATH Study

PurposeTo determine whether shifts in various state-level cannabis policies are associated with individual-level changes in adolescent cannabis use following implementation. MethodsWe use the restricted-access youth cohort of the PATH Study, a recent, longitudinal, and nationally representative dataset, to assess whether changes in cannabis policy affect youth cannabis use. Data include respondents aged 12 to 17 years across up to six repeated observations (N = 26,673). Hybrid (between-person and within-person) panel models are used to examine adolescent past-month cannabis use. ResultsWithin-person effects showed that the odds of past-month cannabis use are lower (odds ratio [OR] = 0.632; p < .05) in years when a respondent's state allowed only cannabidiol (CBD) compared to years when the state had legalized medical cannabis. The odds of past-month cannabis use are lower during years when a respondent's state had decriminalized (OR = 0.617; p < .01) or criminalized (OR = 0.648; p < .05) adult recreational cannabis possession compared to years when it was legalized. These effects were robust to numerous controls, including time and state fixed effects. By contrast, significant between-person effects became nonsignificant with state fixed effects included, implying that state-level average use distinguishes average differences between states rather than policy. DiscussionLiberalized cannabis policy is significantly associated with recent adolescent cannabis use. The most consequential policy shift associated with adolescent use is from either criminalization or decriminalization of cannabis possession to legalization, such that states making these changes should consider additional prevention efforts.

Association of Recreational Cannabis Legalization With Cannabis Possession Arrest Rates in the US

Recreational cannabis legalization (RCL) has been advocated as a way to reduce the number of individuals interacting with the US criminal justice system; in theory, however, cannabis decriminalization can achieve this objective without generating the negative public health consequences associated with RCL. It is still unclear whether RCL can bring additional benefits in terms of reducing cannabis possession arrests in states that have already decriminalized cannabis. To examine whether RCL was associated with changes in cannabis possession arrests in US states that had already decriminalized cannabis during the study period and whether these changes differed across age and racial subgroups. This repeated cross-sectional study used cannabis possession arrest data from the Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCRP) for US states from 2010 through 2019. Statistical analysis was conducted from October 6, 2021, to October 12, 2022. Implementation of statewide RCL. Cannabis possession arrest rates per 1000 population per year were assessed with a quasi-experimental difference-in-differences design and were used to estimate the association of RCL with arrest rates in RCL states that had or had not decriminalized cannabis before RCL. This association was also examined in subgroups for age (adults vs youths) and race (Black vs White). This study included UCRP data for 31 US states, including 9 states that implemented RCL during the study period (4 without and 5 with decriminalization) and 22 non-RCL states. In the 4 states that had not decriminalized cannabis before legalization, RCL was associated with a 76.3% decrease (95% CI, -81.2% to -69.9%) in arrest rates among adults. In the 5 states that had already decriminalized cannabis, RCL was still associated with a substantial decrease in adult arrest rates (-40.0%; 95% CI, -55.1% to -19.8%). There was no association of RCL with changes in arrest rates among youths. In addition, changes in arrest rates associated with RCL did not differ among Black and White individuals. In this repeated cross-sectional study, RCL was associated with a sizable reduction in cannabis possession arrests among adults in states that had already decriminalized cannabis during the study period (2010-2019), albeit the magnitude was smaller compared with states that had not decriminalized cannabis before RCL. In addition, RCL did not seem to be associated with changes in arrest rates among youths or disparities in arrest rates among Black and White individuals.

Policing Pot: State-Level Cannabis Arrests Increase Perceived Risks and Costs but Not Use.

Legal sanctions are purported to play a role in cannabis use and related consequences. General models of deterrence suggest that increases in arrests should decrease consumption by heightening perceptions of the negative consequences of use as well as the likelihood and severity of penalties. The present study examined if arrests resulting from cannabis possession relate to cannabis consumption, perceptions of use, and likelihood and severity of related penalties. Combining data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health with the FBI Uniform Crime Report (2002-2013) allowed for the estimation of a series of fixed- effects models that compare rates of arrests and perceived risks of aggregate rates of self-reported use at the state-level over time. Forty-nine states reported data (N = 592 state-years). Cannabis-related arrest rates (ratio of possession arrests for state/state population times 1,000) ranged from 0.04 - 5.63. Increases in cannabis-related arrests were associated with heightened perceptions of risk from use (b = .80 [-.16, 1.8], p < .05); but this association was non-significant in the model omitting states that legalized recreational cannabis in 2012. Arrests related to greater perceptions of the severity of potential penalties, including community service (b = .54 [.24, .85], p < .05), probation (b = .85 [.44, 1.3], p < .001), and prison sentences (b = .25 [.02, .5], p < .05). Arrest rates were not associated with cannabis use (b = -.25 [-.52, .05], p > .05) or the proportion of new initiates (b = -.02 [-.08, .05], p > .05). We conclude that increased arrests are associated with perceptions of negative consequences and penalty but appear unrelated to actual use. This study highlights the need to re-examine the utility of punitive approaches to reduce the public health burden posed by substance use.

Is arrest for prohibited drug use a prelude to more serious offending?

Although they constitute a significant fraction of the workload of most courts, very little research has been conducted on the criminal careers of those who commit minor offences. Such research is important for both theoretical and practical reasons. It is of theoretical importance because the criminal careers of those who commit minor offences may differ significantly from those who commit serious offences. It is of practical importance because the assumed rate of re-offending among minor offenders has a bearing on both the sentence imposed and the question of whether some offences should be decriminalised. Use or possession of a prohibited drug is a common minor offence – and one that many have argued should be decriminalised. Little is known, however, about the criminal careers of those convicted of this offence. We do not know what proportion are rearrested, what further offences (if any) they commit, or what factors affect the rate of offending among those who do have further contact with the criminal justice system. To answer these questions, we examined a cohort of 13,953 people whose first proven offence was for the use or possession of a prohibited drug and examined their criminal careers over an average period of 4.4 years (sd. = 3.4 years, range = 20.8 years). The majority (73%) had no further contact with the NSW criminal justice system. The most common offence among those who did re-offend was another drug possession offence. Significantly higher risks of re-offending were found among those living in areas in the lowest quartile of disadvantage and among those found in possession of cannabis. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Impact of Extralegal and Community Factors on Police Officers' Decision to Book Arrests for Minor Offenses.

Booked arrests carry greater harms than non-booked arrests. When booked following an arrest, individuals are confined without guilt and an official criminal record forms that carries several negative consequences. Even with these greater harms, police decision to book arrests is understudied with little research on what factors influence this decision. This study utilizes official booking data to determine if suspect extralegal and community factors affect officers’ decisions to book arrests across minor offenses. The study uses data from the Chandler Police Department in Arizona and the American Community Survey from 2013 to 2019. These data include suspect legal/extralegal, officer, time, and block-group level factors. Using a cross-classified modeling approach, we examine factors associated with booking arrests across five offenses (cannabis possession, drug paraphernalia, shoplifting, criminal damage, and non-DUI-traffic). Results suggest that legal factors, particularly felony charges, are associated with higher odds of booking after arrest. However, we also demonstrate how extralegal factors significantly impact police decision to book arrests. Native Americans, Blacks, older individuals, and those with prior records had higher odds of booked arrests. While the odds of booked arrest varied across officers and communities, few officer or community factors were related to the decision to book arrests. Results suggest extralegal factors remain significant across minor offenses. These findings highlight the need to examine disparities on police post-arrest outcomes, expand racial categories studied, and incorporate less utilized variables like prior record.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12103-022-09669-6.

The Liberalization of Cannabis Possession Laws and Birth Outcomes: A State-Level Fixed Effects Analysis, 2003-2019.

As states liberalize their cannabis laws, cannabis use has become more widespread among adults across the United States, including pregnant women. As a result, recent research has investigated the potential effects of prenatal cannabis use on child health, with mixed results. In this study, we investigate the relationship between the liberalization of state-level cannabis possession laws and two birth outcomes indicative of child health: birthweight and gestational age. Drawing on 2003-2019 data from CDC WONDER, the American Community Survey, and multiple legal databases, we use fixed effects models to examine how changes in cannabis policies-moving from a misdemeanor to decriminalized to legalized possession-have influenced state-level averages in birthweight and gestational age and percentages of births classified as low birthweight (<2500g) and preterm (<37 weeks). We account for state-level factors including medical cannabis laws, health-related policies, spending patterns, and demographic characteristics known to influence health. Results indicate that the liberalization of state cannabis possession laws was associated with statistically significant reductions in average birthweight, and to a lesser extent gestational age, with significant effects for subgroups of women by age, race/ethnicity, and risk factors including chronic hypertension and diabetes. However, we did not find increases in the percentage of women with clinically relevant low birthweight or preterm births following cannabis policy liberalization. Although our study does not show substantial changes in adverse birth outcomes, policymakers should be attentive to opportunities to strengthen child health by considering policies that minimize consumption, particularly heavier forms of consumption, by prospective parents.

Sociodemographic Attributes and Prevalence of Arrest With Possession of Substances in Incarcerated Population in the United States.

Background and objectivesIn recent years, there has been an increase in the US imprisonment rate. A substantial percentage of those incarcerations are for drug-related offenses. The authors investigated the relationship between the pattern of substance use and drug-related offenses across a broad spectrum of various sociodemographic attributes of the incarcerated population in the United States.MethodsCross-sectional data from the 2016 Survey of Prison Inmates conducted by the Bureau of Judicial Statistics were extracted with inmates who reported possession of a drug at the time of arrest as a primary outcome of interest. Using SAS 9.4 statistical software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, USA), the authors used multivariate analyses to determine the odds ratios between various sociodemographic attributes of the inmates and possession of substance at the time of the arrest. Logistic regression analysis for age groups in relation to substance possession at the time of arrest is presented in the form of an adjusted odds ratio and their respective confidence interval at p ≤0.5.ResultsOut of the total 23,798 inmates who reported possession of a drug at the time of arrest, 34.07% were Non-Hispanic Whites, and 31.5% were within the age group of 25-34 years. Only 59.47% of inmates were employed 30 days before the arrest, and 58.02% had less than a high school education. Different patterns of drug use were linked with different types of drugs found in their possession at the time of the arrest. Possession of cannabis at the time of arrest was highest in the age group 18-24 years compared to other age groups (odds ratio: 1.362; 95% CI: 1.159 - 1.602). Inmates with a history of stimulant or hypnotic use were more likely to have another psychoactive substance during a time of the arrest. Only 8.46% of inmates had psychiatric and psychological treatment as part of their sentence.ConclusionsA large proportion of incarcerations in the US is because of drug-related offenses, with most of the burden on the younger age group. Inmates should receive psychiatric and psychological treatments for substance use as part of their sentencing while in prison and after release as a form of targeted intervention for this vulnerable group.

High Time for Change: Combatting the Black Market for Cannabis in Canada

On October 17, 2018, Canada legalized the recreational possession and use of cannabis federally under the Cannabis Act. The Cannabis Act states goals of protecting young people from cannabis, reducing and deterring illicit activities in relation to cannabis, and providing the public with access to a supply of legal, quality-controlled cannabis. Despite this, the black market for cannabis has remained strong and persistent, with research indicating that the black market accounted for approximately 71-86% of cannabis sales in the first year of legalization. This paper will explore how and why Canada’s criminal black market for cannabis continues to function after legalization, and what measures can be taken to counteract it. Canada’s illicit black market for cannabis continues to function as the by-product of a reprobate stew of mail-order and traditional cannabis dealers, who operate in a difficult-to-enforce periphery of the Cannabis Act. They continue to flourish by offering cheaper, higher quality, and more available cannabis, functioning as a better-run business outside of the stringent regulatory requirements of the licit market, particularly in packaging and marketing requirements. This paper will recommend that licit retailers and the government must take several decisive steps to combat this. First, amend the Canada Post Corporation Act. Second, be a better business generally by offering lower cost, higher quality cannabis that is consistently available in stores. Third, introduce affordable cannabis options to directly address price-sensitive consumers. Fourth, engage in consumer education. Fifth, loosen marketing restrictions on legal cannabis retailers. Sixth, pass legislation to better utilize the banking and financial sector to trace and flag bank accounts associated with illegal cannabis sales.