Spatial Resolution Of Positron Emission Tomography Research Articles

AI for PET image reconstruction.

Image reconstruction for positron emission tomography (PET) has been developed over many decades, with advances coming from improved modelling of the data statistics and improved modelling of the imaging physics. However, high noise and limited spatial resolution have remained issues in PET imaging, and state-of-the-art PET reconstruction has started to exploit other medical imaging modalities (such as MRI) to assist in noise reduction and enhancement of PET's spatial resolution. Nonetheless, there is an ongoing drive towards not only improving image quality, but also reducing the injected radiation dose and reducing scanning times. While the arrival of new PET scanners (such as total body PET) is helping, there is always a need to improve reconstructed image quality due to the time and count limited imaging conditions. Artificial intelligence (AI) methods are now at the frontier of research for PET image reconstruction. While AI can learn the imaging physics as well as the noise in the data (when given sufficient examples), one of the most common uses of AI arises from exploiting databases of high-quality reference examples, to provide advanced noise compensation and resolution recovery. There are three main AI reconstruction approaches: (i) direct data-driven AI methods which rely on supervised learning from reference data, (ii) iterative (unrolled) methods which combine our physics and statistical models with AI learning from data, and (iii) methods which exploit AI with our known models, but crucially can offer benefits even in the absence of any example training data whatsoever. This article reviews these methods, considering opportunities and challenges of AI for PET reconstruction.

Fast 3D kernel computation method for positron range correction in PET

Objective. The positron range is a fundamental, detector-independent physical limitation to spatial resolution in positron emission tomography (PET) as it causes a significant blurring of underlying activity distribution in the reconstructed images. A major challenge for positron range correction methods is to provide accurate range kernels that inherently incorporate the generally inhomogeneous stopping power, especially at tissue boundaries. In this work, we propose a novel approach to generate accurate three-dimensional (3D) blurring kernels both in homogenous and heterogeneous media to improve PET spatial resolution. Approach. In the proposed approach, positron energy deposition was approximately tracked along straight paths, depending on the positron stopping power of the underlying material. The positron stopping power was derived from the attenuation coefficient of 511 keV gamma photons according to the available PET attenuation maps. Thus, the history of energy deposition is taken into account within the range of kernels. Special emphasis was placed on facilitating the very fast computation of the positron annihilation probability in each voxel. Results. Positron path distributions of 18F in low-density polyurethane were in high agreement with Geant4 simulation at an annihilation probability larger than 10−2 ∼ 10−3 of the maximum annihilation probability. The Geant4 simulation was further validated with measured 18F depth profiles in these polyurethane phantoms. The tissue boundary of water with cortical bone and lung was correctly modeled. Residual artifacts from the numerical computations were in the range of 1%. The calculated annihilation probability in voxels shows an overall difference of less than 20% compared to the Geant4 simulation. Significance. The proposed method is expected to significantly improve spatial resolution for non-standard isotopes by providing sufficiently accurate range kernels, even in the case of significant tissue inhomogeneities.

Image-mode performance characterisation of a positron emission tomography subsystem designed for Biology-guided radiotherapy (BgRT).

In this study, we characterise the imaging-mode performance of the positron emission tomography (PET) subsystem of the RefleXion X1 machine using the NEMA NU-2 2018 standard. The X1 machine consists of two symmetrically opposing 900 arcs of PET detectors incorporated into the architecture of a ring-gantry linear accelerator rotating up to 60 RPM. PET emissions from a tumour are detected by the PET detectors and used to guide the delivery of radiation beam. Imaging performance of the PET subsystem on X1 machine was evaluated based on sensitivity of the PET detectors, spatial resolution, count-loss performance, image quality, and daily system performance check. PET subsystem sensitivity was measured as 0.183 and 0.161 cps/kBq at the center and off-center positions, respectively. Spatial resolution: average FWHM values of 4.3, 5.1, and 6.7 mm for the point sources at 1, 10, and 20 cm off center, respectively were recorded. For count loss, max NECR: 2.63 kcps, max true coincidence rate: 5.56 kcps, and scatter fraction: 39.8%. The 10 mm sphere was not visible. Image-quality contrast values were: 29.6%, 64.9%, 66.5%, 81.8%, 81.2%, and background variability: 14.8%, 12.4%, 10.3%, 8.8%, 8.3%, for the 13, 17, 22, 28, 37 mm sphere sizes, respectively. When operating in an imaging mode, the spatial resolution and image contrast of the X1 PET subsystem were comparable to those of typical diagnostic imaging systems for large spheres, while the sensitivity and count rate were lower due to the significantly smaller PET detector area in the X1 system. Clinical efficacy when used in BgRT remains to be validated. This is the first performance evaluation of the PET subsystem on the novel BgRT machine. The dual arcs rotating PET subsystem on RefleXion X1 machine performance is comparable to those of the typical diagnostic PET system based on the spatial resolution and image contrast for larger spheres.

NEMA NU2-2012 performance measurements of the United Imaging uPMR790: an integrated PET/MR system.

In this paper, we aimed to evaluate the positron emission tomography (PET) performance of, to the best of our knowledge, the third commercially available whole-body integrated PET/magnetic resonance (MR) system. The PET system performance was measured following the NEMA standards with and without simultaneous MR operation. PET spatial resolution, sensitivity, scatter fraction, count-rate performance, accuracy of count losses and random corrections, image quality, and time-of-flight (TOF) resolution were quantitatively evaluated. Clinical scans were acquired at the PET/MR system and compared with images acquired at a PET/CT with the same digital detector technology. Measurement results of essential PET performance were reported in the form of MR idle (MR pulsing). The axial, radial, and tangential spatial resolutions were measured as 2.72mm (2.73mm), 2.86mm (2.85mm), and 2.81mm (2.82mm) FWHM, respectively, at 1cm radial offset. The NECR peak was measured as 129.2kcps (129.5kcps) at 14.7kBqmL-1 (14.2kBqmL-1). The scatter fraction at NECR peak was 37.9% (36.5%), and the maximum slice error below NECR was 4.1% (4.5%). Contrast recovery coefficients ranged from 51.8% (52.3%) for 10mm hot sphere to 87.3% (87.2%) for 37mm cold sphere. TOF resolution at 5.3kBqmL-1 was measured at 535ps (540ps). With point source, TOF was measured to be 474ps (485ps). Clinical scans revealed similar image quality from the PET/MR and the comparative PET/CT system. The PET performance of the newly introduced integrated PET/MR system is not significantly affected by the simultaneous operation of an MR sequence (2-point DIXON sequence). Measurement results demonstrate comparable performance with other state-of-the-art PET/MR systems. The clinical benefits of high spatial resolution and long axial coverage remain to be further evaluated in specific clinical imaging applications.

SiPM signal readout for inter-crystal scatter event identification in PET detectors

In positron emission tomography (PET) with pixelated detectors, a significant number of annihilation photons interact with scintillation crystals through single or multiple Compton scattering events. When these partial energy depositions occur across multiple crystal elements, we call them inter-crystal scatter (ICS) events. ICS events lead to incorrect localization of the annihilation photons, thereby degrading the PET image contrast, spatial resolution, and lesion detectability. The accurate identification of ICS events is the first essential step to improve the quality of PET images by rejecting ICS events or recovering ICS events without losing PET sensitivity. In this study, we propose a novel silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) readout method to identify ICS events in one-to-one coupled PET detectors with a reduced number of data acquisition channels. For concept verification, we assembled a PET detector that consists of a 16-channel SiPM array and 4 4 lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) array with a 3.2 mm crystal pitch. The proposed SiPM readout scheme serializes the 16 SiPM anode signals into four pulse train outputs encoded with four increasing time-delays in steps of 250 ns intervals. A Sum signal of the 16 SiPM anodes provides the timing information for time-of-flight measurement and a trigger signal for coincidence detection. A time-over-threshold (TOT) method was applied for obtaining the energy information followed by a subsequent TOT-to-energy calibration. We successfully identified the ICS events and determined their interacted positions and deposited energies by analyzing the digital pulses from the four pulse train output channels. The occurrence rate of ICS events was 10.85% for the 4 × 4 PET detector module with 3.2 mm-pitch LSO crystals. The PET detector yielded an energy resolution of 10.9 0.6% and coincidence timing resolution of 285 12 ps FWHM. We expect that the proposed method can be a useful solution for alleviating the readout burden of SiPM-based PET scanners with ICS event identification capability.

Effect of tissue density on PET spatial resolution in magnetic environment

Simultaneous positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can provide a strong magnetic field to improve the PET spatial resolution by restricting the positron range. In this study, an experimental system and a Geant4 model were built to investigate the difference in improved spatial resolution by using a magnetic field for PET in different human tissues. Experiment results indicated that the magnetic field enabled a greater compressive effect on the positron distribution in a low-density medium. From the simulation results, the magnetic compression was only effective in the direction perpendicular to the magnetic field. Additionally, the saturated relative change rates of the mean positron range were reached for all tissues with increasing magnetic field, and the saturated values exhibited an overall negative correlation with the tissue density. However, despite the considerable difference in the absolute range in different tissues, the saturated values were only in a very narrow range of approximately 45% to 50%, compared to the final relative change rates. It was revealed that the magnetic field can be a more effective method for improving the PET imaging quality for low-density tissues, and there should be an upper threshold for improving the PET spatial resolution using a magnetic field. A range-corrected algorithm associated with tissue density for PET–MRI systems can probably be developed based on the results.

Multi-modal medical image segmentation based on vector-valued active contour models

Positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) are widely utilized medical imaging modalities that provide essential anatomic and structural details. Many medical segmentation methods are not effective for a single-modal image of poor quality (e.g., low contrast in CT or low spatial resolution in PET). For practical radiotherapy treatment planning, multi-modal imaging information is regularly used. In this paper, a novel vector-valued active contour model is proposed to segment multi-modal medical images simultaneously for abnormal tissue regions. The method makes use of the functionality information and anatomical structure information advantages from each modality. Since each modality has its own signal characteristics, we use region-based information, combining hybrid mean intensities simultaneously. Furthermore, by utilizing a two-dimensional vector field with different image modalities, edge-based information is used to constrain the results of the image segmentation. The proposed approach is evaluated on datasets including lung PET-CT and brain MRI-CT images. Our qualitative and quantitative research results confirm the effectiveness of the proposed method.

P619Stress-strain loop area better represents regional myocardial work than pressure-strain loop area in the dyssynchronous and remodelled left ventricle

Abstract Background Pressure-strain-loops (PSL) have been suggested as surrogate parameter of regional myocardial work. However, in left ventricles (LV) with inhomogeneous remodelling, e.g. due to left bundle branch block (LBBB), wall stress may be unevenly distributed. Stress-strain loops (SSL) include information on both regional wall thickness and curvature, and may therefore provide a better surrogate. Study plan We therefore compared the correlation of segmental myocardial work estimated through both PSL and SSL to segmental myocardial glucose metabolism as a gold standard, in an animal model of pacing-induced LV remodelling. Methods Twelve sheep developed LV dilatation, thinned septum and thickened lateral wall, due to eight weeks of rapid right-atrial and right-ventricular free wall (DDD) pacing (at 180 bpm), causing a LBBB-like dyssynchrony. Invasive LV pressure and echocardiographic speckle tracking based circumferential strain were used to construct PSL. SSL were calculated by considering in addition dynamic changes in segmental myocardial wall thickness and curvature using the formula of Laplace. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)-uptake was measured by positron emission tomography (PET) in absolute values as standardised uptake ratio (SUR). Spatial resolution of PET was improved by ECG- and breathing-gating and using anatomical priors. All imaging was performed during dyssynchronous DDD-pacing and synchronous AAI-pacing (right-atrial pacing only), at baseline (n=3 animals), and after eight weeks of pacing induced remodelling (n=12 animals). Results Both at baseline (Fig. A+B) and after 8 weeks (Fig. D+E), switching between AAI and DDD-pacing caused an acute re-distribution of regional myocardial work as measured by both PSL and SSL. In contrast to PSL, however, SSL identified more regional differences among walls in remodelled hearts and showed clearer regional changes when switching between AAI and DDD-pacing. The correlation between regional work, assessed by PSL and SSL, and metabolism by PET, was comparable at baseline (r=0.65 and r=0.64, respectively) (Fig. C). In remodelled hearts after 8 weeks, however, the correlation of regional work assessed by SSL and glucose uptake by PET was significantly higher compared to PSL (r=0.73 vs. r=0.59, respectively; p<0.05) (Fig. F). Conclusions Regional myocardial work assessed by stress-strain loops correlates significantly better to regional metabolism as measured by PET glucose uptake, particularly after remodelling. Our findings therefore suggest that integrating information on wall thickness and curvature is essential for the reliable assessment of regional myocardial work, especially in dyssynchronous and remodelled left ventricles.

Post-reconstruction-based partial volume correction methods: A comprehensive review

Abstract The vital role of positron emission tomography (PET) image is to provide an accurate quantitative information. Nevertheless, the partial volume effect (PVE) can easily alter the quantification. This effect is a consequence of the limited spatial resolution in PET which is due to the non-collinear and/or inherently random photon. For several years, great effort has been devoted to study the partial volume correction (PVC) and improve the quality of the image. At first stage, only PET modality was used and then, further study of the issue involved anatomic information from high resolution modalities in the correction process. Clearly, this regularization using segmentation, correlation and the registration step between the two modalities enhanced the performance of these techniques. These methods can be, mostly, divided into two main approaches: reconstruction-based methods and a post-reconstruction-based methods. In this paper the focus of attention was to present the most used post-reconstruction PVC methods developed in the literature. We will introduce the principal of each method, its extension and their applications in different domains.

A novel iterative modified bicubic interpolation method enables high-contrast and high-resolution image generation for F-18 FDG-PET.

Positron emission tomography (PET) has become a useful and important technique in oncology. However, spatial resolution of PET is not high; therefore, small abnormalities can sometimes be overlooked with PET. To address this problem, we devised a novel algorithm, iterative modified bicubic interpolation method (IMBIM). IMBIM generates high resolution and -contrast image. The purpose of this study was to investigate the utility of IMBIM for clinical FDG positron emission tomography/X-ray computed tomography (PET/CT) imaging.We evaluated PET images from 1435 patients with malignant tumor and compared the contrast (uptake ratio of abnormal lesions to background) in high resolution image with the standard bicubic interpolation method (SBIM) and IMBIM. In addition to the contrast analysis, 340 out of 1435 patients were selected for visual evaluation by nuclear medicine physicians to investigate lesion detectability. Abnormal uptakes on the images were categorized as either absolutely abnormal or equivocal finding.The average of contrast with IMBIM was significantly higher than that with SBIM (P < .001). The improvements were prominent with large matrix sizes and small lesions. SBIM images showed abnormalities in 198 of 340 lesions (58.2%), while IMBIM indicated abnormalities in 312 (91.8%). There was statistically significant improvement in lesion detectability with IMBIM (P < .001).In conclusion, IMBIM generates high-resolution images with improved contrast and, therefore, may facilitate more accurate diagnoses in clinical practice.

Enhancing Cardiac PET by Motion Correction Techniques

Cardiac positron emission tomography (PET) images often contain errors due to cardiac, respiratory, and patient motion during relatively long image acquisition. Advanced motion compensation techniques may improve PET spatial resolution, eliminate potential artifacts, and ultimately improve the research and clinical capabilities of PET. Combined cardiac and respiratory gating has only recently been implemented in clinical PET systems. Considering that the gated image bins contain much lower counts than the original PET data, they need to be summed after correcting for motion, forming motion-corrected, high-count image volume. Furthermore, automated image registration techniques can be used to correct for motion between CT attenuation scan and PET acquisition. While motion correction methods are not yet widely used in clinical practice, approaches including dual-gated non-rigid motion correction and the incorporation of motion correction information into the reconstruction process have the potential to markedly improve cardiac PET imaging.

Wobbling and LSF-based maximum likelihood expectation maximization reconstruction for wobbling PET

Abstract Positron emission tomography (PET) is a widely used imaging modality; however, the PET spatial resolution is not yet satisfactory for precise anatomical localization of molecular activities. Detector size is the most important factor because it determines the intrinsic resolution, which is approximately half of the detector size and determines the ultimate PET resolution. Detector size, however, cannot be made too small because both the decreased detection efficiency and the increased septal penetration effect degrade the image quality. A wobbling and line spread function (LSF)-based maximum likelihood expectation maximization (WL-MLEM) algorithm, which combined the MLEM iterative reconstruction algorithm with wobbled sampling and LSF-based deconvolution using the system matrix, was proposed for improving the spatial resolution of PET without reducing the scintillator or detector size. The new algorithm was evaluated using a simulation, and its performance was compared with that of the existing algorithms, such as conventional MLEM and LSF-based MLEM. Simulations demonstrated that the WL-MLEM algorithm yielded higher spatial resolution and image quality than the existing algorithms. The WL-MLEM algorithm with wobbling PET yielded substantially improved resolution compared with conventional algorithms with stationary PET. The algorithm can be easily extended to other iterative reconstruction algorithms, such as maximum a priori (MAP) and ordered subset expectation maximization (OSEM). The WL-MLEM algorithm with wobbling PET may offer improvements in both sensitivity and resolution, the two most sought-after features in PET design.

Radiofluorination of PSMA-HBED via Al(18)F(2+) Chelation and Biological Evaluations In Vitro.

Ga-68-labeled prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) ligands have been used clinically for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of prostate cancer. However, F-18-labeled compounds offer several advantages, including the potential for delayed imaging, high starting activities enabling multidose preparation, and improved spatial resolution in PET. For F-18 labeling of peptides conjugated with a suitable chelator, a fast and feasible method is the use of [Al(18)F](2+). In the present study, the radiofluorinations of a well-known PSMA ligand Glu-NH-CO-NH-Lys(Ahx)-HBED-CC (PSMA-HBED) via [Al(18)F](2+) were performed with respect to various reaction parameters, along with the biological evaluations in a cell experiment. [Al(18)F]PSMA-HBED was prepared by adding Na[(18)F]F into a vial containing 0.026μmol peptide (in 0.05M NaOAc buffer) and 0.03μmol AlCl3⋅6H2O (in 0.05M NaOAc buffer). Then, it was stirred at different temperatures from 1 to 30min. Afterwards, purification was carried out by solid phase extraction. Biological evaluations were performed in PSMA-positive cell lines LNCaP C4-2, along with a negative control using PC-3 cell lines. The best labeling results (81 ± 0.5%, n = 4) were observed with 0.026μmol peptide (30°C, 5min). For preclinical experiments, the production of [Al(18)F]PSMA-HBED at 35°C including purification by solid phase extraction (SPE) succeeded within 45min, resulting in a radiochemical yield of 49 ± 1.2% (decay-corrected, n = 6, radiochemical purity ≥98%) at EOS. The labeled peptide revealed serum stability for 4h as well as a promising binding coefficient (K D) value of 10.3 ± 2.2nM in cell experiments with PSMA-positive LNCaP C4-2 cells. An efficient and one-pot method for the radiosynthesis of [Al(18)F]PSMA-HBED was developed (0.26μmol of precursor at 35°C). In cell culture studies, the K D suggests [Al(18)F]PSMA-HBED as a potential PSMA ligand for future investigations in vivo and clinical applications afterwards.

The Effect of Magnetic Field on Positron Range and Spatial Resolution in an Integrated Whole-Body Time-Of-Flight PET/MRI System.

Simultaneous imaging systems combining positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been actively investigated. A PET/MR imaging system (GE Healthcare) comprised of a time-of-flight (TOF) PET system utilizing silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) and 3-tesla (3T) MRI was recently installed at our institution. The small-ring (60 cm diameter) TOF PET subsystem of this PET/MRI system can generate images with higher spatial resolution compared with conventional PET systems. We have examined theoretically and experimentally the effect of uniform magnetic fields on the spatial resolution for high-energy positron emitters. Positron emitters including 18F, 124I, and 68Ga were simulated in water using the Geant4 Monte Carlo toolkit in the presence of a uniform magnetic field (0, 3, and 7 Tesla). The positron annihilation position was tracked to determine the 3D spatial distribution of the 511-keV gammy ray emission. The full-width at tenth maximum (FWTM) of the positron point spread function (PSF) was determined. Experimentally, 18F and 68Ga line source phantoms in air and water were imaged with an investigational PET/MRI system and a PET/CT system to investigate the effect of magnetic field on the spatial resolution of PET. The full-width half maximum (FWHM) of the line spread function (LSF) from the line source was determined as the system spatial resolution. Simulations and experimental results show that the in-plane spatial resolution was slightly improved at field strength as low as 3 Tesla, especially when resolving signal from high-energy positron emitters in the air-tissue boundary.

Positron annihilation spectroscopy of biological tissue in 11C irradiation

Positron annihilation spectroscopy (PAS) spectra of biological tissue in 11C irradiation are reported and spatial resolution coefficient of positron emission tomography (PET) obtained from the PAS spectrum is discussed for 11C irradiation. A PAS spectrum of the biological tissue with water is the same as that of the water pool phantom in 11C irradiation. However, a PAS spectrum of the biological tissue with less water differs from that of the water pool phantom. The PET spatial resolution coefficient depends on the kind of biological tissue. However, the PET spatial resolution coefficient, 0.00243 ± 0.00014, can be used as a common value of maximum limit.

Improving PET spatial resolution and detectability for prostate cancer imaging

Prostate cancer, one of the most common forms of cancer among men, can benefit from recent improvements in positron emission tomography (PET) technology. In particular, better spatial resolution, lower noise and higher detectability of small lesions could be greatly beneficial for early diagnosis and could provide a strong support for guiding biopsy and surgery. In this article, the impact of improved PET instrumentation with superior spatial resolution and high sensitivity are discussed, together with the latest development in PET technology: resolution recovery and time-of-flight reconstruction. Using simulated cancer lesions, inserted in clinical PET images obtained with conventional protocols, we show that visual identification of the lesions and detectability via numerical observers can already be improved using state of the art PET reconstruction methods. This was achieved using both resolution recovery and time-of-flight reconstruction, and a high resolution image with 2 mm pixel size. Channelized Hotelling numerical observers showed an increase in the area under the LROC curve from 0.52 to 0.58. In addition, a relationship between the simulated input activity and the area under the LROC curve showed that the minimum detectable activity was reduced by more than 23%.

A feasibility study of PETiPIX: an ultra high resolution small animal PET scanner

PETiPIX is an ultra high spatial resolution positron emission tomography (PET) scanner designed for imaging mice brains. Four Timepix pixellated silicon detector modules are placed in an edge-on configuration to form a scanner with a field of view (FoV) 15 mm in diameter. Each detector module consists of 256 × 256 pixels with dimensions of 55 × 55 × 300 μm3. Monte Carlo simulations using GEANT4 Application for Tomographic Emission (GATE) were performed to evaluate the feasibility of the PETiPIX design, including estimation of system sensitivity, angular dependence, spatial resolution (point source, hot and cold phantom studies) and evaluation of potential detector shield designs. Initial experimental work also established that scattered photons and recoil electrons could be detected using a single edge-on Timepix detector with a positron source. Simulation results estimate a spatial resolution of 0.26 mm full width at half maximum (FWHM) at the centre of FoV and 0.29 mm FWHM overall spatial resolution with sensitivity of 0.01%, and indicate that a 1.5 mm thick tungsten shield parallel to the detectors will absorb the majority of non-coplanar annihilation photons, significantly reducing the rates of randoms. Results from the simulated phantom studies demonstrate that PETiPIX is a promising design for studies demanding high resolution images of mice brains.

Routine Production of 89Zr Using an Automated Module

89Zr has emerged as a useful radioisotope for targeted molecular imaging via positron emission tomography (PET) in both animal models and humans. This isotope is particularly attractive for cancer research because its half-life (t1/2 = 3.27 days) is well-suited for in vivo targeting of macromolecules and nanoparticles to cell surface antigens expressed by cancer cells. Furthermore, 89Zr emits a low-energy positron (Eβ+,mean = 0.40 MeV), which is favorable for high spatial resolution in PET, with an adequate branching ratio for positron emission (BR = 23%). The demand for 89Zr for research purposes is increasing; however, 89Zr also emits significant gamma radiation (Γ15 keV = 6.6 R×cm2/mCi×h), which makes producing large amounts of this isotope by hand unrealistic from a radiation safety standpoint. Fortunately, a straightforward method exists for production of 89Zr by bombarding a natural Y target in a biomedical cyclotron and then separation of 89Zr from the target material by column chromatography. The chemical separation in this method lends itself to remote processing using an automated module placed inside a hot cell. In this work, we have designed, built and commissioned a module that has performed the chemical separation of 89Zr safely and routinely, at activities in excess of 50 mCi, with radionuclidic purity &gt; 99.9% and satisfactory effective specific activity (ESA).

Optimal co-segmentation of tumor in PET-CT images with context information.

Positron emission tomography (PET)-computed tomography (CT) images have been widely used in clinical practice for radiotherapy treatment planning of the radiotherapy. Many existing segmentation approaches only work for a single imaging modality, which suffer from the low spatial resolution in PET or low contrast in CT. In this work, we propose a novel method for the co-segmentation of the tumor in both PET and CT images, which makes use of advantages from each modality: the functionality information from PET and the anatomical structure information from CT. The approach formulates the segmentation problem as a minimization problem of a Markov random field model, which encodes the information from both modalities. The optimization is solved using a graph-cut based method. Two sub-graphs are constructed for the segmentation of the PET and the CT images, respectively. To achieve consistent results in two modalities, an adaptive context cost is enforced by adding context arcs between the two sub-graphs. An optimal solution can be obtained by solving a single maximum flow problem, which leads to simultaneous segmentation of the tumor volumes in both modalities. The proposed algorithm was validated in robust delineation of lung tumors on 23 PET-CT datasets and two head-and-neck cancer subjects. Both qualitative and quantitative results show significant improvement compared to the graph cut methods solely using PET or CT.

EPOTRAN: A full-differential Monte Carlo code for electron and positron transport in liquid and gaseous water

Purpose: We describe here a novel full-differential Monte Carlo (MC) event-by-event simulation, for modelling electron and positron histories in liquid and gaseous water, with impact energies ranging from the water excitation threshold (7.4 eV) to 10 keV. This new track-structure code is named EPOTRAN, an acronym for Electron and POsitron TRANsport in water. Material and methods: All the processes induced by both electrons and positrons are studied in detail via theoretical differential and total cross sections, calculated within the quantum mechanical framework by using the partial-wave method. Elastic and inelastic interactions are then successively reviewed, including in particular an original description of the positron-induced capture process leading to Positronium formation. Results: Total and differential cross sections are reported and compared with a large set of existing measurements. Rather good agreement is generally observed over the considered energy range. Conclusions: This work reports the theoretical cross sections used in a special purpose Monte Carlo simulation suitable for electron and positron transport in gaseous and liquid water. This MC code should represent an accurate tool for dose calculation at the nanometric scale, by providing a detailed spatial distribution of energy deposits. Furthermore, positron trajectory studies made possible by this approach should prove useful for evaluating the real contribution of the positron range on the overall spatial resolution of PET (Positron Emission Tomography) imaging.