Positive Alcohol Outcome Expectancies Research Articles

The influence of negative urgency and mood inductions on alcohol cognitions.

Negative urgency (NU), the tendency to act rashly during negative emotional states, is a robust risk factor for alcohol misuse that is posited to function in part through alcohol-related cognitions. Nonetheless, relatively little research has examined mood-based fluctuations in such cognitions, which could help to explain how the trait of NU translates to impulsive alcohol-related behaviors. We examined how NU impacted several alcohol cognitions (positive/negative alcohol expectancies, positive/negative alcohol valuations, and alcohol craving for positive/negative emotional reinforcement) before and after negative, neutral, or positive mood inductions. We hypothesized that NU would predict greater and more favorable endorsement of alcohol and its effects following negative (vs. positive or neutral) mood induction. Participants (N = 428) were southern-midwestern college students recruited for an online experiment. Following the provision of consent, participants rated NU and preinduction alcohol cognitions, and were then randomly assigned to one of three (negative, neutral, or positive) mood inductions; subsequently, postinduction alcohol-cognition ratings were immediately obtained. We conducted six robust multilevel linear models (one per DV) examining NU's influence on within-person changes in alcohol cognitions across each mood induction. No three-way interactions were identified and only one two-way interaction involving NU was identified. There were main effects across mood induction conditions and time points for NU predicting greater endorsement of positive and negative alcohol outcome expectancies, and greater alcohol craving for positive and negative emotional reinforcement. Greater NU predicts greater perceived likelihood of alcohol's effects, alongside greater desire for mood improvement from alcohol. The absence of three-way interactive effects indicates NU's influence on mood-dependent fluctuations in alcohol cognitions may manifest over longer timescales (e.g., months and years), involve alternative cognitive processes (e.g., drinking motives and implicit alcohol cognitions), and apply more broadly to desires for mood improvement than purely negative emotional reinforcement.

Development of an individualized procedure to induce reward-related impulsivity and evaluating its impact on drinking control

High impulsivity predisposes young adults to engage in hazardous alcohol use. Experimental research has shown that reward-related impulsivity is causally-related to heavier drinking. Correlational studies suggest that positive alcohol outcome expectancies mediate this effect, but causation has yet to be established. This study sought to clarify this relationship by: 1) developing a new, individualized procedure for inducing reward-related impulsivity with high generalizability; 2) experimentally manipulating positive alcohol expectancies to determine its mechanistic role in reward-related impulsivity risk for drinking. Eighty-seven young adults (67% female; Mage = 19.19, SD = 2.01) received either a covert manipulation to reduce positive alcohol expectancies (n = 43) or control (n = 44) after being administered the Individualized Reward-Seeking Induction Schedule (IRIS). The primary outcome was self-reported confidence in the ability to refuse alcohol in cued situations (drinking refusal self-efficacy). Results showed that IRIS increased reward-related impulsivity (p < .001, drm = 0.48) and reduced drinking refusal self-efficacy (p = .029, η2P = .055, ωp2 = .043). Experimentally diminishing positive alcohol expectancies had a marginal effect on the reward-seeking induction when controlling for covariates (p = .057, η2P = .044). Findings provide preliminary validation of IRIS as a new methodology for investigating the causal role of reward-related impulsivity in alcohol-related cognition and youth drinking.

Alcohol-related cognitive mechanisms underlying adolescent alcohol use and alcohol problems: Outcome expectancy, self-schema, and self-efficacy

The objective of this study was to empirically test a theoretical model to determine the cognitive mechanisms that are associated with adolescent alcohol use and alcohol problems. We posited that alcohol outcome expectancies would affect alcohol-refusal self-efficacy through the drinker self-schema. We also posited that alcohol outcome expectancies and the drinker self-schema would affect alcohol use and problems through alcohol-refusal self-efficacy. A survey was administered to 225 adolescents in a public junior high school in Taiwan at two-time points, six months apart. Path analysis was used to determine the mechanisms underlying the alcohol-related cognitive constructs on the alcohol use and alcohol problems separately, controlling for appropriate alcohol-related personal and environmental factors. Indirect effects were estimated using the bootstrapping method. Higher positive alcohol outcome expectancies and lower negative alcohol outcome expectancies predicted higher drinker self-schema scores. Higher positive alcohol outcome expectancies and drinker self-schema scores predicted lower alcohol-refusal self-efficacy. Lower alcohol-refusal self-efficacy was associated with a history of drinking and alcohol problems in the past six months. Effects of alcohol outcome expectancies on alcohol use and alcohol problems were partially mediated through the drinker self-schema and alcohol-refusal self-efficacy. Findings support the proposed theoretical cognitive mechanisms underlying alcohol use and alcohol problems in a sample of Taiwanese adolescents. Given that alcohol-related cognitive constructs are modifiable, the findings also provide a foundation to suggest that interventions to reduce positive alcohol outcome expectations and prevent the formation of a drinker self-schema may facilitate alcohol-refusal self-efficacy and mitigate drinking behaviors in this adolescent population.

Effects of Social and Outcome Expectancies on Hazardous Drinking among Chinese University Students: The Mediating Role of Drinking Motivations

Background and Objectives: Based on the theory of reasoned action, the present study investigated the relative effects of drinking outcome expectancies and parental norms, as well as the mediating effect of drinking motivations, on hazardous drinking in Chinese university students. Method: A sample of Chinese university students in Hong Kong and Macao (N = 973, M = 19.82, SD = 1.57, 48.9% males), who reported drinking in the past 3 months, voluntarily completed an anonymous questionnaire. Path analysis was used to test the effects of the variables on hazardous drinking. Results: All the psychosocial variables showed positive correlations with hazardous drinking. In the path model, controlling for sex, parental norms had both direct and indirect effects on hazardous drinking through social and enhancement motivations. Courage had the strongest indirect effect on drinking behavior through social, enhancement, and coping motivations, whereas the relationship between tension reduction and hazardous drinking was mediated by enhancement and coping motivations. Sociality and sexuality only had indirect effect through social and coping motivations respectively. Negative outcome expectancies had no direct nor indirect effects on hazardous drinking. Conclusions: Perceived approval from parents and positive alcohol outcome expectancies may enhance individuals’ tendency to engage in hazardous drinking by increasing their motivation to drink to be social, for enjoyment, and to cope with problems. Parents should explicitly show their disapproval of their children’s drinking, and education efforts should focus on decreasing positive outcome expectancies and associated motivations for drinking among Chinese university students.

Peer norms and susceptibility mediate the effect of movie alcohol exposure on alcohol initiation in adolescents.

Movie alcohol exposure is a known and consistent predictor of adolescent alcohol use initiation and escalation. Nearly 90% of the top U.S. movies contain alcohol content. Social-cognitive theory posits reciprocal links among environmental influences (e.g., movie alcohol exposure), social-cognitive processes (e.g., perceived norms, susceptibility, alcohol outcome expectancies), and behavior (alcohol use), but these links have been tested in only 1 direction. In the current study, we assessed movie alcohol exposure, alcohol cognitions, and alcohol initiation among adolescents (N = 1,023; 52% female, mean age = 13.7 years) in 4 annual survey waves. Cross-lagged panel models tested bidirectional relations between cognitions and movie alcohol exposure. Finally, we tested bidirectional mediation effects in the prospective prediction of alcohol initiation. Movie alcohol exposure prospectively predicted increases in descriptive norms, injunctive norms, and susceptibility but not positive or negative alcohol outcome expectancies. All factors predicted subsequent alcohol initiation. Close friend injunctive and descriptive norms, peer descriptive norms, and susceptibility mediated the effect of earlier movie alcohol exposure on subsequent alcohol initiation. Movie alcohol exposure mediated the effect of earlier close friend descriptive norms on subsequent alcohol initiation. Movie alcohol exposure and social-cognitive processes are interrelated facets that impact alcohol initiation. Permissive cognitions infrequently predicted higher subsequent exposure to movie alcohol. Clinical and preventative implications of this work are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Developmental relations between alcohol expectancies and social norms in predicting alcohol onset.

Expectations about alcohol's effects and perceptions of peers' behaviors and beliefs related to alcohol use are each shown to strongly influence the timing of drinking onset during adolescence. The present study builds on prior work by examining the conjoint effects of within-person changes in these social-cognitive factors on age of adolescent drinking onset. We related youths' alcohol status (i.e., alcohol-naive, initiation during study, prior initiation) to increases in positive and negative alcohol outcome expectancies (AOEs), as well as increases in perceived peer/close friend alcohol use and acceptance, during adolescence. We also investigated whether changes in AOEs and perceived social norms prospectively predicted alcohol onset in alcohol-naïve adolescents. Participants were 1,023 adolescents aged 12.2 years on average at enrollment (SD = 0.98), 52% female, participating in an ongoing longitudinal survey on substance use and health behaviors. Positive AOEs, close friends' norms, and same-age peer norms increased linearly, whereas negative AOEs decreased linearly. Changes were attenuated for participants who remained alcohol-naïve and increased for participants who experienced initiation during the study. Furthermore, we found associations between individual changes in AOEs and perceived social norms. Finally, survival models revealed that onset of alcohol use was prospectively predicted by stronger initial positive AOEs, as well as increases in close friends' norms and decreases in negative AOEs over time. These findings emphasize codevelopment of AOEs and perceived social norms, coinciding with, and predictive of, onset of alcohol use, and point toward a unique role for within-individual changes in identifying youth at risk for early onset of alcohol use. (PsycINFO Database Record

Alcohol Outcome Expectancies Mediate the Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Alcohol Drinking in University Students: The Role of Gender

College alcohol drinking is a public health concern worldwide. A line of research indicates that higher social anxiety is associated with more severe college drinking. However, other studies reveal a protective role of social anxiety against alcohol drinking in college students. Attempting to reconcile contradictory findings, we examined the hypothesis that there are multiple antagonistic pathways that could explain the social anxiety-college drinking relationship. In addition, there may be individual difference variables that moderate these processes. Furthermore, it was expected that the processes could vary as a function of the alcohol drinking outcomes examined. Expectancy theory emphasizes the role of alcohol outcome expectancies in alcohol drinking. Thus, in the present study we tested whether global positive and negative alcohol outcome expectancies partially mediate the relationship between social anxiety, alcohol consumption, and alcohol-related problems in a sample of 245 university students. We also examined the moderating role of gender in these mediating processes. Results revealed parallel but oppositional processes. Higher social anxiety was associated with heavier alcohol drinking and more serious alcohol-related problems via stronger positive alcohol outcome expectancies. However, the mediating role of positive alcohol outcome expectancies varied as a function of gender. It appears that in female students the mediating effect of positive alcohol outcome expectancies was stronger than in male students. On the other hand, higher social anxiety had a protective role against alcohol consumption but not against alcohol-related problems via stronger negative alcohol outcome expectancies. Finally, there was an inverse direct relationship between social anxiety and alcohol consumption.

Drinking motives and alcohol outcome expectancies as mediators of the association between negative urgency and alcohol consumption

ObjectiveTo determine whether the effects of negative urgency, a unique facet of impulsivity marked by engaging in potentially unhealthy and rash behaviors in order to cope with anxiety or negative moods, on drinking behavior can be explained by positive and negative alcohol outcome expectancies and specific drinking motives (i.e., coping and enhancement). MethodsCollege students (N=194) completed web-based surveys in exchange for course credit. Students completed measures of negative urgency, comprehensive effects of alcohol, drinking motives, and alcohol use behaviors. ResultsResults of path analysis indicated significant indirect effects of negative urgency and alcohol use through both alcohol outcome expectancies and enhancement motives. The effects of enhancement motives on drinking were mediated by positive alcohol outcome expectancies. The effects of coping motives on drinking were not attributable to negative expectancies. ConclusionsIndividuals high on negative urgency may consume alcohol in order to ameliorate their emotional distress due to strong desires to increase positive and decrease negative experiences associated with drinking. Emotion-focused impulsivity's influence on drinking outcomes can be ascribed to enhancement motives for drinking as well as positive and negative alcohol outcome expectancies. Prevention efforts should target drinking motives and alcohol outcome expectancies among those higher in negative urgency.

Cognitive appraisals of alcohol use in early adolescence: Psychosocial predictors and reciprocal associations with alcohol use.

Early adolescence is a dynamic period for the development of alcohol appraisals (expected outcomes of drinking and subjective evaluations of expected outcomes), yet the literature provides a limited understanding of psychosocial factors that shape these appraisals during this period. This study took a comprehensive view of alcohol appraisals and considered positive and negative alcohol outcome expectancies, as well as subjective evaluations of expected outcomes. Developmental-ecological theory guided examination of individual, peer, family, and neighborhood predictors of cognitive appraisals of alcohol and use. A community sample of 378 adolescents (mean age 11.5 years at Wave 1, 52% female) was assessed annually for 4 years. Longitudinal path analysis suggested that the most robust predictors of alcohol appraisals were peer norms. Furthermore, perceived likelihood of positive and negative alcohol outcomes prospectively predicted increases in drinking. There was limited support for appraisals operating as mediators of psychosocial risk and protective factors.

Why students drink: A study of South African University students' drinking behaviour

Little is known about the drinking behaviour of South African university students and education and prevention campaigns are not necessarily based on scientific research results. To change drinking behaviour, it is important to address the drinking motives, alcohol outcome expectancies, and alcohol-related behaviour that hold valence in education and prevention campaigns. The purpose of this study was to gain insight into the drinking behaviour of South African university students, and to make recommendations towards the development of persuasive communications that will address drinking motives and alcohol outcomes. The measurement instruments used in the study included the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT), the Drinking Expectancy Questionnaire Revised (DEQ-R), and the Drinking Motives Questionnaire Revised (DMQ-R). Data (n=474) were collected from university students from a single campus in South Africa. The data analyses included independent sample t-tests, ANOVA and partial least squares modelling. The results indicate that students expect an element of tension reduction and an increase in sexual interest when consuming alcohol and that they primarily drink for social and enhancement motives. The influence of positive alcohol outcome expectancies on drinking behaviour is mediated by social and enhancement motives. The study’s findings can be used by universities to develop effective education and responsible drinking programmes.

Social anxiety and alcohol use: The role of alcohol expectancies about social outcomes

Though social anxiety disorder and alcohol use disorders commonly co-occur, the mechanisms involved in social anxiety and hazardous drinking among college students are not well understood. The current study contributes to the emerging literature on social anxiety and college drinking as the first known study to test how positive (e.g. “I would feel at ease in social situations”) and negative (e.g. “I would make a fool out of myself”) alcohol outcome expectancies (AOE) specific to social situations (social AOE) impact the association between social anxiety and hazardous alcohol use among 718 undergraduates (61% women; Mage = 19.50, SD = 1.45; 85% White). Results supported the mediation, but not the moderation models. There were positive indirect effects of social anxiety through positive social AOE and negative indirect effects of social anxiety through negative social AOE on both hazardous drinking outcomes (i.e. alcohol consumption and alcohol problems). Findings suggest that there could be competing pathways for increasing (positive social AOE) and decreasing (negative AOE) risk for hazardous alcohol use in socially anxious college students.

The Association between Scholastic Measures, Alcohol Outcome Expectancies and Alcohol Use: A Cross-sectional Study in Northern Ireland

Alcohol use among adolescents is associated with both short-term (truancy, illness, trouble with police) and long-term (dependence, unemployment) negative consequences. Moreover, because of its developmental nature, adolescent drinking behaviour is difficult to accurately assess. Individual-level scholastic variables and alcohol outcome expectancies have been found to be associated with drinking behaviours. This study used a cross-sectional design to investigate: the relationship between alcohol use and individual-level scholastic variables, namely academic motivation and academic self-efficacy; and the relationship between alcohol use and alcohol outcome expectancies, while controlling for a wide range of other variables. Participants were post-primary (high) school pupils in the greater Belfast area of Northern Ireland. They completed a range of questionnaires including measures assessing academic self-efficacy, academic motivation, alcohol outcome expectancies, and a composite measure of alcohol use. Results showed that, controlling for the hierarchical nature of the data, socio-demographic variables and other possible confounders, lower reported scores on the individual-level scholastic measures, higher reported scores on positive alcohol outcome expectancies, and lower reported scores on negative alcohol outcome expectancies remained significantly associated with more problematic drinking. Results are discussed in the context of contemporaneous school-related research.

Concurrent alcohol and tobacco treatment: Effect on daily process measures of alcohol relapse risk.

The aim of this study was to compare the effects of alcohol treatment along with concurrent smoking treatment or delayed smoking treatment on process measures related to alcohol relapse risk. Alcohol dependent smokers (N = 151) who were enrolled in an intensive outpatient alcohol treatment program and were interested in smoking cessation were randomized to a concurrent smoking cessation (CSC) intervention or to a waiting list for delayed smoking cessation (DSC) intervention scheduled to begin 3 months later. Daily assessments of relapse process measures were obtained using an Interactive Voice Response (IVR) system for 12 weeks after the onset of smoking treatment in the CSC condition, and before beginning smoking treatment in the DSC condition. Smoking outcomes were assessed at 2 and 13 weeks after starting treatment. Seven-day carbon monoxide (CO) verified smoking abstinence in the CSC condition was 50.5% at 2 weeks and 19.0% at 13 weeks compared with 2.2% abstinence at 2 weeks and 0% abstinence at 13 weeks for those in the DSC condition. Drinking outcomes were not significantly different for CSC versus DSC treatment conditions. On daily IVR assessments, CSC participants had significantly lower positive alcohol outcome expectancies relative to DSC participants. Multilevel modeling (MLM) analyses of within-person effects across the 12 weeks of daily monitoring showed that daily smoking abstinence was significantly associated with same day reports of lower alcohol consumption, lower urge to drink, lower negative affect, lower positive alcohol outcome expectancies, greater alcohol abstinence self-efficacy, greater alcohol abstinence readiness to change, and greater perceived self-control demands. Analyses of process measures provide support for recommending smoking intervention concurrent with intensive outpatient alcohol treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record

춘천지역 대학생의 문제음주에 영향을 미치는 요인

The purpose of this study was to investigate factors affecting problematic drinking by university students in the Chuncheon area. Lifelong drinking rate of subjects was 98.1%. Problematic drinking rates according to AUDIT (alcohol use disorders identification test) were as follows: 21.3% ‘no problem’, 58.0% ‘at-risk drinking’, 10.0% ‘alcohol abuse’ and 10.7% ‘alcohol dependence’. Research has shown that problematic drinking is more prevalent among freshmen, early drinkers, those with hypochondria, and students who are less satisfied with their campus life or whose own parents are frequent drinkers. It has been shown that more serious problematic drinking is associated with higher ‘positive alcohol outcome expectancies’ and ‘coping motives for drinking’, and ‘recognition level of drinking cultures’ is considered less desirable. Multiple regression analysis revealed that ‘coping motives for drinking’ was the most significant variable affecting the problematic drinking of university students. Developing and fostering various alcohol-reducing programs that largely focus on ‘coping motives for drinking’ will greatly contribute to solving problematic drinking.

A person-centered approach to understanding negative reinforcement drinking among first year college students

The current study used a person-centered approach (i.e. latent profile analysis) to identify distinct types of college student drinkers based on the predictions of motivational, social learning, and stress and coping theories of maladaptive drinking. A large sample (N=844; 53% female) of first-year undergraduates from two institutions, public and private, who reported consuming one or more drinks in the last three months completed measures of depressive and anxiety symptoms, positive alcohol-outcome expectancies, negative life events, social support, drinking motives, drinking level and drinking-related problems. Latent profile analysis revealed a small subgroup of individuals (n=81, 9%) who conformed to the anticipated high-risk profile; specifically, this group demonstrated high levels of negative affect, coping motives, drinks per week, and drinking-related problems. However, additional groups emerged that showed patterns inconsistent with the proposed vulnerability profile (e.g., high negative affect, positive expectancies, and negative life events, but relatively low drinking levels). Findings from our person-centered approach showing the presence of groups both consistent and inconsistent with the predictions of motivational, social learning, and stress and coping theories highlight the need to identify and target certain college students for prevention and intervention of negative affect-related drinking.

Changing Outcome Expectancies, Drinking Intentions, and Implicit Attitudes toward Alcohol: A Comparison of Positive Expectancy‐Related and Health‐Related Alcohol Warning Labels

Although alcohol consumption is a leading risk factor for major illnesses, warning labels are still not being used. Alcohol consumption is related to positive and negative outcome expectancies, which both play a crucial role. This study compared the effectiveness of warning labels that contradicted positive outcome expectancies with health-related warning labels among a college-aged German sample (N = 40). Half of the participants received health-related warning labels while half received positive-related warning labels. Implicit attitudes were assessed before and after warning-label exposure. Explicit attitudes and outcome expectancies were assessed after exposure. Participants' usual drinking behavior was assessed before exposure to warning labels, and their drinking intentions were measured afterwards. Participants exposed to positive-related warning labels had marginally more negative implicit attitudes compared to their own prior attitudes. They tended to perceive lower social and higher negative outcome expectancies than the health-related warning labels group. Importantly, the positive-related warning labels group's drinking intentions tended to be lower than those of the health-related warning labels group. This first test of warning labels that contradict positive alcohol outcome expectancies provided promising results; thus warning labels could be considered as means to influence college-aged people.

Application of the stressor vulnerability model to understanding posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol-related problems in an undergraduate population.

Research examining the comorbidity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol-use disorder (AUD) suggests that individuals experiencing PTSD symptoms (PTSS) often drink alcohol as a means to self-medicate their trauma symptoms; however, little attention has been given to moderating variables that may make this association more likely. The stressor vulnerability model proposes that being male, relying on maladaptive forms of coping, and holding positive alcohol-outcome expectancies predispose individuals to engage in alcohol use when experiencing psychological distress. In the current study, sex, avoidance coping (AVC), tension-reduction expectancies (TRE), and emotional-relief drinking-refusal self-efficacy (ERDRSE) were examined as moderators of the relationship between PTSS and alcohol-related problems in a sample of 144 undergraduates. Results indicated that males reporting high levels of TRE exhibited a stronger positive relationship between PTSS and alcohol-related problems than was present for males reporting low levels of TRE and for females reporting either high or low levels of TRE. In addition, a significant positive relationship between PTSS and alcohol-related problems was observed for individuals reporting high levels of TRE and low levels of ERDRSE, but not for individuals reporting high levels of TRE and high levels of ERDRSE, low TRE-low ERDRSE, or low TRE-high ERDRSE. Assessment of these vulnerability factors in traumatized youth and young adults may serve as a useful means of identifying individuals at risk for the development of alcohol-related problems.

Implicit and explicit alcohol-related motivations among college binge drinkers

Positive alcohol outcome expectancies and behavioral economic indices of alcohol consumption are related to binge drinking among college students and may reflect explicit and implicit motivations that are differentially associated with this behavior. The present study hypothesized that implicit (alcohol purchase task) and explicit (positive expectancy for alcohol's effects) motivations for drinking would not be correlated. It was also hypothesized that greater implicit and explicit motivations would predict alcohol-related risk. Participants were 297 college student binge drinkers (54% female; 88% European-American; Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: M = 9.53, SD = 5.04). Three indices from the alcohol purchase task (APT) were modeled as a latent implicit alcohol-related motivations variable. Explicit alcohol-related motivations were measured using a global positive expectancy subscale from the Comprehensive Effects of Alcohol Questionnaire. Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test total, Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index total, and age of drinking onset were modeled as a latent alcohol-related risk variable. Structural equation modeling was used to examine associations amongst implicit motivations, explicit motivations, and alcohol-related risk. Implicit and explicit motivations were not correlated. Partially consistent with the second hypothesis, greater implicit motivations were associated with greater alcohol-related risk. Relations between explicit motivations and alcohol-related risk were marginally significant. Implicit and explicit drinking motivations are differentially associated with problem drinking behaviors. Future research should examine the underlying neurobiological mechanisms associated with these factors.

Alcohol consumption among adolescents in Kraljevo, Serbia

AbstractThe aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and predictors of alcohol consumption among adolescents in one town in Central Serbia. A questionnaire was used to obtain data from 191 Serbian students aged 18 years regarding personal experience with alcohol consumption and cigarette smoking, along with sociodemographics data. Alcohol consumption was reported by 97.4% subjects, with 34.9% having the first experience with alcohol at the age of 14 years or less. Binge drinking (the intake of five or more drinks at one sitting) was reported by 37.8% subjects. Significantly higher consumption of beer (p&lt;0.0001) and spirits (p=0.03) was observed in boys. The most common reason for both initiation and continuation of drinking, regardless of gender, were celebrations (p≥0.12). Smokers were more likely than nonsmokers to consume all alcoholic beverages more frequently (p≤0.04) and in larger quantities (p≤0.004). More frequent or more extensive alcohol consumption, or both, was associated in boys with frequent going out and socializing (p≤0.01), close peer relationship (p=0.04), alcohol abuse within the immediate environment (p≤0.04), better financial status of family (p=0.04), and parental criticism (p≤0.02); in girls, it was associated with parental disapproval (p≤0.02), alcohol abuse within the immediate environment (p≤0.04), and general discontentedness (p=0.049). Regardless of gender, positive alcohol outcome expectancies increased alcohol consumption (p≤0.048), and negative expectancies decreased intake (p≤0.047).

Relationship between alcohol outcome expectancies, self-efficacy, motives and alcohol consumption among university students

Alcohol use is widespread among university students. While searching for the factors associated with drinking, scientists more often acknowledge the importance of various cognitive-motivational variables. It is recommended to consider these variables when developing effective prevention and intervention programs. The cognitive-motivational variables examined in this study were: alcohol outcome expectancies, drinking motives, motives for not drinking, and drinking refusal self-efficacy. The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between alcohol outcome expectancies, motives, self-efficacy and alcohol consumption among Lithuanian university students. Another aim was to propose and test a meditational model in which alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems are predicted by expectancies, motives and self-efficacy. 308 students from five Lithuanian universities participated in this study. All participants completed the Drinking Expectancy Questionnaire – revised (DEQ-r), Drinking Refusal Self-efficacy Questionnaire – revised (DRSEQ-r), Drinking Motives Questionnaire (DMQ), motives for not drinking questionnaire and one more questionnaire assessing drinking patterns and alcohol-related problems. The results have shown that the male gender, stronger motives to drink and a weaker drinking refusal self-efficacy predict a larger quantity of alcohol consumed per occasion. More frequent drinking was also predicted by an earlier age of drinking onset. A larger number of alcohol-related problems was predicted not only by the frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption, but also by stronger motives to drink and a weaker drinking refusal self-efficacy. The relationship between positive alcohol outcome expectancies and alcohol consumption was mediated by motives and drinking refusal self-efficacy. Motives to drink predict alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems directly and indirectly – through self-efficacy. Drinking refusal self-efficacy predicted alcohol consumption directly, and the relationship between self-efficacy and alcohol-related problems was mediated by alcohol consumption. Strong positive alcohol outcome expectancies and drinking motives may be considered as potential risk factors for heavy drinking and alcohol-related problems. Strong drinking refusal self-efficacy and strong motives for not drinking because of indifference toward alcohol may be considered as protective factors against drinking and alcohol-related problems among university students.