EU Position Research Articles

The European Union in the annual United Nations General Assembly Debates

ABSTRACT We examine foreign policy preference convergence and cohesion among EU states, as revealed in the annual United Nations General Debate (UNGD). Of interest is whether the institutional adaptations following the Lisbon Treaty led to convergence towards the official EU position and more cohesion in speeches delivered by EU states. We argue that the UNGD is a distinct context where EU states feel compelled to differentiate themselves compared to other areas where EU coordination efforts are extensive. We explore EU convergence and cohesion based on all EUGD UNGD speeches between 1990 and 2019. We primarily apply text-as-data techniques to extract states’ positions on well-established foreign policy dimensions. We use wordscores and text similarity measures, comparing our analysis to ideal point estimates based on UNGA voting and co-sponsorship data. We find that EU states use the UNGD as a venue to articulate their own, differentiated positions as individual UN member states.

Scientific support for preparing an EU position in the 55th Session of the Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues (CCPR).

The European Commission asked EFSA to provide support in the framework of Article 43 of Regulation (EC) No 396/2005 for the preparation of the EU position for 55th Session of the Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues (CCPR). In the current report, EFSA provided comments and recommendations on the Codex maximum residue level (MRL) proposals derived by the Joint Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR) that will be discussed in the upcoming CCPR meeting. The current report should serve as the basis for deriving the EU position for the CCPR meeting.

UKRAINIAN MEDIA ON HUNGARY'S PRESIDENCY OF THE EU COUNCIL

This article examines the reaction and coverage by Ukrainian media of Hungary's presidency of the Council of the European Union. The aim of the article is to analyze and systematize the approaches of Ukrainian media to covering Hungary's presidency of the EU Council, assess their impact on shaping public opinion in Ukraine on this issue, and explore how the media interpret the potential consequences of the Hungarian presidency for Ukraine's European integration aspirations and its support from the EU in the context of Russian aggression. The relevance of the topic is due to the complex Ukrainian-Hungarian relations and Hungary's ambiguous position on the Russian-Ukrainian war, which causes concern in Ukrainian society and media space. The paper analyzes key aspects of this topic's coverage by leading Ukrainian media, including news portals, analytical publications, and television channels. Special attention is paid to how the media interpret the potential impact of the Hungarian presidency on EU support for Ukraine and Ukraine's European integration process. The study reveals that Ukrainian media demonstrate a balanced but vigilant approach to covering this topic. They carefully analyze statements and actions of the Hungarian government, especially regarding issues related to Ukraine. The media also focus on possible contradictions between the official EU position and Hungary's position on supporting Ukraine. The article also examines how Ukrainian media involve expert assessments for deeper analysis of the situation and its potential consequences. It highlights the media's role in shaping public opinion on this issue and their contribution to understanding complex geopolitical processes. Special attention is paid to how Ukrainian media cover this issue in the context of ongoing Russian aggression, which adds particular urgency to the discussion. It analyzes how media balance between the need for objective coverage and a patriotic position in wartime conditions. In conclusion, the article emphasizes the important role of Ukrainian media in shaping public discourse on international politics and Ukraine's European integration processes. It stresses the need for further development of a critical and analytical approach in media to ensure full and objective information to society about complex international relations and their impact on Ukraine.

The European Union and Israel: political and legal problems of scientific and technological cooperation in modern conditions

The subject of the study is the complications in scientific and technological cooperation (STC) between the EU and Israel due to Israeli military actions in the Gaza area and their extremely negative humanitarian consequences. The purpose of the article is to reveal and systematize the political and legal problems that have arisen in the scientific and technological cooperation between the EU and Israel against the background of the unprecedented escalation of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict in 2023-2024. In a consistent form, the authors analyze the legal foundations of Israel's participation in the EU framework programs in the field of STC and determine the degree of its integration into the European Research Space. The specifics of the range of projects involving Israel in the EU framework programs are demonstrated, as well as the discussion points of the possible exclusion of Israel from participation in EU projects and programs in the field of STC are considered. The authors reveal in detail the factors that determine the specifics of the EU's scientific diplomacy towards Israel in the context of the current escalation of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. The achievement of the set goal and the solution of the research tasks was based on the use of the following methodological base: the principle of historicism, the historical and legal method, the formal dogmatic method, the comparative method, the systematic approach, the modeling method and the forecasting method. The authors of the article concluded that there are sufficient legal instruments at the EU level to exclude Israeli scientific institutions and military companies from EU projects that develop dual-use technologies as a measure aimed at forcing Israel to change its policy towards the Gaza Strip. However, the European Commission does not intend to introduce restrictive measures, to adjust its traditional scientific diplomacy towards Israel, or to develop recommendations addressed to European scientific institutions, taking into account the current political situation. A special contribution of the article to the relevant field of research was that the authors explain the EU's position by the action of the following factors, namely the activity of the pro-Israel lobby, Germany's special approach to cooperation with Israel, the lack of unity within the EU academic community and, finally, the prospects for the militarization of European programs in the field of STC.

Nuclear threat in Russia’s war against Ukraine: the IAEA and the EU position

Nuclear threat in Russia’s war against Ukraine: the IAEA and the EU position

Dividing Lines in the EU’s Common Foreign Policy: Russia as a polarising factor

Amid the ongoing confrontation between Russia and the West, the processes of consolidation and divergence among political elites are crucial for understanding the mechanisms that form dividing lines. This is particularly important when examining the elites of the European Uni­on in their opposition to Russia. This article aims to develop a framework for analysing the dividing lines among EU elites in the context of relations with Russia. The analysis em­ploys a multi-tier model establishing a relationship between the ‘depth’ of a dividing line and the degree of elite disunity. The model includes two levels of analysis of dividing lines within the EU: supranational and national. The research demonstrates that, depending on the degree of interest misalignment and the availability of communication channels, elite divergence can result in segmentation, fragmentation or polarisation. Each of the tiers of divergence increa­singly reduces the likelihood of forming a common EU position on foreign policy issues. All three tendencies — segmentation, fragmentation and polarisation — are observed within the EU in relation to Russia at different levels of elite analysis. Crucial to the formation of a dividing line is the aspect of EU—Russia relations in question: the degree of distancing from the country or support for, and funding of, containment. Additional variables include factors such as the regional affiliation of the elite, their ideology and position within the power structure. Among all levels of analysis, polarisation is most evident in the efforts of supranational elites to promote ‘militant integration’, which conflicts with the interests of national elites and citizens of member states.

A fenntartható ellátási láncok rövidítése Magyarországon és Európában

The study examines the impact of supply disruptions arising from the COVID-19 pandemic and the energy security challenges primarily resulting from the Russian-Ukrainian war on the re-evaluation of sustainability considerations and the European green transition, especially regarding the potential strategic importance of renewable energy sources. The justification for the shortening of the long supply chains can be argued from the perspectives of supply security and sustainability. Furthermore, the economic validation of sustainability considerations is receiving increasing attention in professional discourse, sparking public debate. One of the primary tensions underlying these polemics is the conflict between short-term economic interests and long-term sustainability and environmental considerations. These interests often contradict each other, and the ongoing professional debate surrounding the shortening of supply chains provides relevant insight into these conflicts. However, the supply disruptions resulting from COVID-19 have re-emphasized the importance of supply security, prompting many economic actors to reconsider their supply strategies. The growing significance of supply security is evident in surveys, expert analyses, and economic strategic documents. The energy challenges posed by the Russian-Ukrainian war have, in turn, prompted EU policymakers to reform the energy strategy. The risks associated with energy security highlighted the vulnerabilities stemming from dependency on external fossil-based energy sources. This article aims to answer the question of how short-term economic interests and longer-term sustainability goals can be reconciled in light of the supply disruptions experienced during COVID-19 and the Russian-Ukrainian war. It does this through a literature review of professional debates and relevant expert analyses, strategic EU documents, and by examining key indicators of the EU's energy dependence. The restructuring of the EU's energy policy demonstrates the feasibility of rapidly implementing major transformations in complex systems when necessary. Beyond facilitating professional discourse, the experiences from these events can also boost the European green transition, as a green Europe built on its renewable resources can be more resilient against challenges of the future. This is in line with both economic and environmental objectives. The main conclusion of the research is that the EU's successful transition to renewable energy sources, in addition to achieving environmental goals, can contribute to reducing external risks through the alleviation of energy dependence. Furthermore, energy security provided by its own energy sources facilitates the growth of the real economy and underpins the EU's geopolitical position.

Empirical insights on the dynamics of SPS trade costs: The role of regulatory convergence and experience in EU dairy trade

With its influence on the world stage, the EU’s Farm to Fork initiative seeks to extend sustainable and fair food production practises globally, in part, by encouraging convergence with EU food standards (i.e., sanitary and phytosanitary measures-SPS). Harmonisation clauses have been found empirically to encourage trade, but no quantifiable estimates exist on the trade effects of SPS regulatory convergence. This paper examines this issue for the dairy industry, a highly regulated sector with significant sustainability concerns attached. Furthermore, the cost-saving effects arising from closer regulations and ‘experience’ (i.e., accumulated years of foreign trade track-record), are compared. Employing a 3-year interval panel starting in 2010, a structural gravity equation that includes domestic trade is estimated with a flexible empirical approach that evinces asymmetric trade impacts for specific bilateral trade routes. Results indicate a trade depressing effect for SPS measures, estimated as a global average 10.4% Ad-valorem Equivalent (AVE). Moreover, at the global level, converging regulatory frameworks generate larger trade gains than experience, where a 1% rise in regulatory convergence is equivalent to 5 years of positive trade and a 14% reduction of the AVE. The reduction of trade frictions prompted by harmonisation and experience does not, however, outweigh SPS trade costs. Exporters to the EU face a higher SPS AVE than that faced by the EU (10.1% vs 9.3%). On average, exporters to the EU also benefit from a 9% saving due to experience, although cost savings from regulatory convergence are only reported for larger exporters to the EU, whose consolidated position in EU markets also grants them even greater than average benefits from years of accumulated experience.

What Drives the European Union's Contemporary Strategic Engagement with China?

Abstract: This article discusses the main determinants of the European Union's (EU) strategic engagement with China with reference to three theoretical viewpoints: an institutional perspective, a values-based approach and a realpolitik dimension. It examines the utility of each theoretical position and outlines complementary and divergent essential characteristics. This examination is conducted with the aid of empirical evidence from long-standing points of interaction between the EU and China over the last three decades. These include the EU's arms embargo of China, EU–China competition in Africa and the EU's position on designating market economy status to China. This analysis can reduce the misunderstandings and uncertainties embedded in the contemporary EU–China relationship.

Scientific support for preparing an EU position in the 54th Session of the Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues (CCPR).

The European Commission asked EFSA to provide support in the framework of Article 43 of Regulation (EC) No 396/2005 for the preparation of the EU position for 54th Session of the Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues (CCPR). In the current report, EFSA provided comments and recommendations on the Codex maximum residue level (MRL) proposals derived by the Joint Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR) that will be discussed in the upcoming CCPR meeting. The current report should serve as the basis for deriving the EU position for the CCPR meeting.

The achievement of digitalisation in the EU and its reliance on gigabit connectivity

A major component of the EU's digitalisation strategy is its targets for universal gigabit connectivity, based on either fixed (mainly FTTH) or mobile (5G) technologies. In order to achieve its objectives, such an ambitious strategy must achieve a fusion of the digital and the physical activities in all sectors of the economy (public and private); in this task, achieving the policy goal of universal connectivity requires that it be efficient, while achieving equitable (or ‘fair’) results. The EU position is that an appropriate balance needs to be struck through regulation which pursues the twin goals of competition and investment, as is now required by the EECC.Over the past 20 years, the EU has benefitted from a successful regime of pro-competition regulation in telecommunications, which has transformed the structure of fixed markets and broadly maintained rivalry in the mobile market. However, the policy imperative of attaining universal high-speed connectivity requires the mobilisation of resources to cover remoter areas, which are less attractive to competitors. Government subsides may help, but in some Member States regulators may also have to dilute competitive pressure on the historic incumbent in order to elicit this investment. Possible ways of accomplishing this entirely legitimate task (and ensuring that the resources thus generated are applied to the relevant public purpose) are considered.In relation to 5G, questions arise about how much network sharing should be permitted to allow the construction of advanced stand-alone networks. Relevant competition cases in this area are also reviewed. Finally, the suggestion has seen made that network operators should receive resources transferred from the largest Over-The-Top operators (OTT), which are understood to be highly profitable and involved in, but which do not contribute to the cost of, infrastructure that can support the high proportion of Internet traffic. Which they carry and from which they benefit The paper discusses both the legitimacy of such an approach, if directed towards an authorised public purpose, and (briefly) the practical difficulties involved in its implementation, including ensuring that the transferred resources are deployed for the intended purposes.

On europium digallides

AbstractThe europium gallide Eu1‐xGa2+3x (x is between 0.06 and 0.07) has been synthesized and its crystal structure has been refined from single crystal X‐ray diffraction data. Eu1‐xGa2+3x crystallizes with hexagonal structure related to the AlB2‐type (space group P6/mmm, a=4.354 Å, c=4.485 Å). The structure refinement finished with R(F)=0.015 for 1603 reflections revealing a defect occupation of the Eu position (93 %) and additional Ga position, yielding the non‐integer element ratio. From magnetic susceptibility measurements, EuGa2 and Eu1‐xGa2+3x phases show the 4f 7 (Eu+2) oxidation state. The analysis of effective atomic charges within the Quantum Theory of Atoms in Molecules reveals the formation of four‐bonded Ga species with low electron demand (in comparison to the three‐bonded in AlB2‐type and four‐bonded in the KHg2‐type structures) and shows, that Eu1‐xGa2+3x represents a new way of stabilizing intermetallic structures formed at valence electron concentration, which does not allow to apply Zintl‐like electron counting.

МІЖНАРОДНЕ НАУКОВО-ТЕХНІЧНЕ СПІВРОБІТНИЦТВО З ЄС В СФЕРІ ЕНЕРГЕТИКИ: ПРІОРИТЕТИ Й ПЕРСПЕКТИВИ

The importance of cooperation between Ukraine and the European Union is described in the article. The priority directions of research and innovation activity of the EU countries in the field of energy are considered. The key strategic directions of the state energy policy of Ukraine are described, taking into account the country’s European integration course. The state and main problems of the development of the energy sector are analyzed. The trends of energy generation from renewable sources and possibilities of development of this sphere in Ukraine are determined. The necessity of the country’s participation in international scientific and technical cooperation in the energy sector, primarily with the EU are substantiated. Ukraine's declared pro-European orientation requires an appropriate activity strategy, which involves taking into account European standards of production and economic development. Thus, the signing of the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the EU opens up significant prospects for international scientific and technical cooperation of Ukrainian industrial enterprises, in particular energy enterprises, which are determined by greater involvement in innovative and technological projects of the EU, expanding access to capacious European sales markets, using Ukraine's opportunities for attraction of foreign investments and technology transfer, as well as participation in various EU development programs. At the same time, this requires not only the establishment of new priorities for the development of the energy sector, but also their achievement in the medium and long term. The process of international scientific and technical cooperation in the European Union plays a key role in the development of the economy, since the further strengthening of the EU's position on the world stage depends on the effectiveness of the involvement in the process of solving the problems of scientific and technical development of the potentials not only of the Commonwealth of Nations, but also of the entire European region. For this purpose, the European Commission has developed a plan for the creation of the "European Scientific Space", a special place in which cooperation with developing countries and countries with transition economies is given.

Trade policy and foreign trade of the European Union

Economic globalization is characterized by an increase in international trade and growing interdependence of economies at the global level. The EU's trade policy is a central tool for responding to the challenges associated with globalization and other modern challenges, such as the consequences of the pandemic and the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine, and turning its potential into real benefits. In other words, the trade policy of the European Union is a significant lever in shaping the competitiveness of the EU in the world market and is based on a wide range of various measures, which determines the relevance of this study. The subject of the study is the peculiarities and prospects of the development of trade policy and foreign trade of the European Union. In turn, the goal is to analyze the specifics of trade policy implementation and the current state of the European Union's foreign trade. It was found that bilateral international agreements play a decisive role among EU policies. But there are also unilateral policy measures that also have a huge impact on the state and performance of foreign trade. Among them are tariff and non-tariff regulation methods. It has been found that despite the fact that the EU's share of world trade has been falling in recent years, it remains at a high level and is a key basis for growth, competitiveness and employment in the EU. At the same time, the EU's export and import dynamics have a tendency to grow, which indicates that despite the decline in the EU's share in world trade, the EU's position as one of the world's trade leaders will strengthen, but competition will grow. To achieve the set goal and solve research tasks, modern methods of scientific research were used in the performance of scientific work, in particular, general scientific and special methods of analysis of economic phenomena and processes: systematic approach, comparative analysis, historical-logical method, comparative analysis, economic-mathematical modeling, and namely: trend analysis. Therefore, the growing indicators of the EU's foreign trade prove that the EU's trade policy is successful.

Psychological impact of olfactory branding: The future of smell marks in India

AbstractScents have been used by business organizations for commercializing their products since historic times. Because of the psychological connect that a consumer immediately makes as he smells something unique, olfactory branding is considered as a very productive and effective marketing tool. Trademark law attempts to protect a brand's identity with the ultimate motive of preventing consumers from deceptively similar goods. Scholars and businesses have been raising their voice in a demand call for smell mark protection under trademark law, arguing that smell is just as important for identifying the origin‐point of a product for a consumer as is the brand's logo or name or product shape. While the US courts have been liberal in granting smell mark registrations, EU courts have interpreted the “graphical representation” requirement under trademark law very strictly. Indian law, though not entirely closed on the prospect of smell mark protection, is inclined toward the EU position. After analyzing the current legal scenario, this article explores the more fundamental question as to the feasibility of smell marks, questioning their justification under the philosophical foundations of trademark law, the subjective associations of consumers with respect to smells, the difficulty in evidence analysis by courts in infringement suits and the apprehension relating to the functionality doctrine.

Technological sovereignty of the EU in advanced 5G mobile communications: An empirical approach

Two key issues within the debate around ‘technological sovereignty’ in the European Union are (i) access by countries and firms to enabling and emerging technologies and (ii) how strategic dependencies can be managed in order to preserve competitive positions in global value chains. In this paper, we present and discuss a multidimensional synthetic metric – the Technological Sovereignty Index (TSI) – to provide a global measure that captures the degree of exposure to specific technologies by a country (or group of countries) as well as the vulnerabilities that may be present. The paper validates the TSI by examining the EU's position (until 2021) within the global value chain of advanced 5G mobile communications, focusing on the hardware and component segments. Our findings reveal a weak degree of technological sovereignty due to (i) the shortage of specialized human capital in the EU and (ii) outsourcing trends in the relevant segments; however, untapped capabilities may exist that could partially offset strategic shortcomings.

Scientific support for preparing an EU position in the 53rd session of the codex committee on pesticide residues (CCPR)

Abstract EFSA received a request from the European Commission to provide support for the preparation of the EU position for 53rd Session of the Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues (CCPR). In 2021, JMPR evaluated 38 active substances with regard to their toxicological properties and/or the setting of Codex Maximum Residue Limits (CXLs) (acetamiprid, bixafen, clofentezine, clothianidin, cyprodinil, difenoconazole, ethion, ethiprole, fenbuconazole, fenhexamid, fenpicoxamide, fenpyroximate, fipronil, fluopyram, flutianil, imazalil, isoprothiolane, isoxaflutole, mandipropamid, mefentrifluconazole, metalaxyl, metalaxyl‐M, methoprene, methoxyfenozide, pendimethalin, prothioconazole, pydiflumetofen, pyrasulfotole, pyraziflumid, quinoxyfen, spinetoram, spiropidion, sulfoxaflor, tebuconazole, tetraniliprole, thiamethoxam, trifloxystrobin, trinexapac). EFSA prepared comments on the Codex MRL proposals and the proposed toxicological reference values. In addition, EFSA provided further considerations on follow‐up assessments of JMPR on pesticides for which specific concerns on the toxicological or residue assessments were raised in the previous CCPR meetings (afidopyropen, fluensulfone, metconazole, propiconazole). The current report should serve as the basis for deriving the EU position for the CCPR meeting.

Scientific statement on the maximum residue levels for potassium phosphonates.

The European Commission mandated EFSA to issue a scientific statement, in accordance with Article 31 of Regulation (EC) No 178/2002, providing an overview of the maximum residue levels for potassium phosphonates in different products. This statement should be based on the maximum residue levels recently proposed by EFSA in several Reasoned Opinions published between June 2021 and January 2022 and the maximum residue levels supported in preparation of an EU position at the 52nd Codex Committee on Pesticides Residues. EFSA prepared a scientific statement containing a summary of the maximum residue levels proposed, including a reference to the scientific output on which the recommendation for each product is based and a justification for the selected values when different ones were proposed by the different outputs. An updated consumer risk assessment, based on the consolidated list of MRLs for the enforcement of phosphonic acid residues, was calculated. No risk for consumers was identified.

EU-MERCOSUR TRADE RELATIONS – CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS IN THE LIGHT OF THE COMPLETED NEGOTIATIONS OF THE TRADE AGREEMENT

Dynamic changes in world trade in recent years have provided an important impetus for the European Union to modify its trade policy and seek to strengthen bilateral relations, including through the negotiation of trade agreements. The completion of negotiations for an agreement with Mercosur is an important part of this effort. The aim of the paper is to present the results of research concerning the analysis of the EU-Mercosur trade relations and to indicate the perspectives of the negotiated deal. From the analysis carried out in the paper, it can be concluded that despite a mere 2% share of total EU trade, the Mercosur group is an important partner for the EU, and the opportunities for developing mutual cooperation are significant. This is supported not only by the untapped potential in mutual trade relations giving considerable chances to achieve significant savings after the implementation of the agreement, but also by external determinants that provide an additional significant incentive to strengthen the EU position in the region. To achieve the objectives of the study, the analytical and descriptive method was mainly used. The considerations were based mainly on original materials and scientific papers on EU trade policy, as well as data from reports of international organizations.

EU Common Position on International Law and Cyberspace

The discussion on international law applicable to cyber operations has shifted from asking whether international law applies to cyberspace to how it applies. Recently the European Union declared in its renewed cybersecurity strategy the ambition to develop common EU position on the application of international law in cyberspace. As part of a broader vision in striving for leadership on standards, norms and regulatory frameworks in cyberspace, the joint communication underlined the need for taking a more proactive stance in the discussions at the United Nations and other relevant international fora. However, less than half of the European Union Member States have issued a public statementon the interpretation of international law in cyberspace and hence, reaching a consensus on the interpretation of relevant concepts of international law appears a challenge. This article provides an overview of the current status of EuropeanUnion Member States’ public statements on international law applicable to cyber operations, identifies the domains of international law where convergence of views can be observed and highlights the areas with notable differences.