Porteus Maze Test Research Articles

Cognitive disengagement syndrome in children with type 1 diabetes: important implications for clinical outcomes.

Children with type 1 diabetes (T1D) are prone to a variety of psychiatric disorders, however, to date, no study has examined cognitive disengagement syndrome (CDS) in children with T1D. The present study aimed to evaluate the frequency of CDS symptoms in children with T1D and whether it is related to glycemic control. This cross-sectional study included 74 children with T1D and 88 healthy (control) children, aged 8-14years. All children were evaluated through a semi-structured psychiatric interview, the Kent-EGY test, porteus maze test, stroop test TBAG form, Barkley child attention scale, and Conners' parent rating scale-revised-short form. Children with T1D had considerably higher rates of elevated CDS symptoms than control children (35.1% vs. 10.2%, p < 0.001). Children with T1D performed poorly on attention and cognitive tests. High levels of CDS symptomatology were strongly associated with earlier diabetes onset age, longer disease duration, a higher percentage of diabetic ketoacidosis at diagnosis, higher HbA1c levels, and higher daily insulin dosages. Also, T1D patients with elevated CDS symptoms had lower IQ and attention scores and worse cognitive function performance compared to participants with low levels of CDS symptomatology. Elevated CDS symptoms are significantly higher in children with T1D and are associated with poorer diabetes control. The routine psychiatric examination of children with T1D should also include a screening for CDS, particularly in patients with poor glycemic control.

Comparative evaluation of isoflurane and desflurane for postoperative cognitive decline in elderly patients: A prospective observational pilot study.

Approximately 16%-62% of patients undergoing non cardiac surgeries develop postoperative cognitive dysfunction. We compared the incidence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction in older adults aged 60-80 years who underwent open abdominal surgeries under general anaesthesia using isoflurane or desflurane and correlated it with the serum concentration of interleukin 1, interleukin 6, tumour necrosis factor alpha, amyloid β and S100 on postoperative day 3. Forty American Association of Anesthesiologists Physical Classification I or II patients were included after acquiring institutional ethics committee approval, registering in the Clinical Trials Registry - India, and informed written consent. They underwent open abdominal surgery under general anaesthesia and epidurals between 2017 and 2019. Patients with substance abuse or any disorder affecting cognition were excluded. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction was assessed by Stroop test, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Trail making test - B, Porteus Maze test, PGI memory scale, mini-mental state examination, and Bender Gestalt test the day before surgery and on the third postoperative day along with blood samples. Thirty-seven percent of the patients developed postoperative cognitive dysfunction. The risk was similar to isoflurane in comparison with desflurane (risk ratio: 0.65, 95% confidence interval: 0.30, 1.40). A significant percentage increase in reaction time for Porteus Maze test and Trail making test - B was noted with isoflurane (6.69 (4.20-8.94) and 8.01 (2.08-12.5), respectively) in comparison with desflurane group (13.01 (9.09-17.33), p = 0.003 and 11.62 (7.5-17.5), p = 0.017, respectively). Isoflurane and desflurane had a similar impact on the elderly for developing postoperative cognitive dysfunction and no correlation with any of the biomarkers used in the study on postoperative day 3.

Executive Functions, Intellectual Capacity, and Psychiatric Disorders in Adults with Type 1 Chiari Malformation

Contrary to popular belief, the cerebellum is involved not only in motor planning, balance, and coordination but also in cognitive processes. The present study aimed to investigate executive functions (EFs), intellectual capacity, and psychiatric disorders in adults with type 1 Chiari malformation, which is defined as a hindbrain anomaly that involves the cerebellum. The study included 62 adults, with 29 in the CM group and 33 in the control group. EFs were evaluated using the Stroop test, number sequence learning test, and standardized mini-mental state examination (SMMSE). The intelligence quotient (IQ) was measured using the Kent EGY and Porteus maze tests, and psychiatric disorders were evaluated using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5, Clinician Version (DSM-5-CV). The CM group took longer than the control to complete the Stroop test for each section (P<0.005). Although the mean IQ scores of both groups were within the normal range, the CM group had a lower mean IQ score than the control group (P<0.005). Although the mean SMMSE scores of both groups were within the normal range, the CM group had a lower mean SMMSE score than the control group (P<0.005). The CM group had a higher rate of psychiatric comorbidities than the control group (P<0.005). The study found that subjects with type 1 Chiari malformation performed worse in EFs than healthy controls and had a higher prevalence of psychiatric disorders.

Significance of the Diagnosis of Executive Functions in Patients with Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive chronic disease of the Central Nervous System (CNS). Cognitive decline occurs rather rarely in relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) compared to other types. The present study aimed to assess executive functions (EF) in relation to clinical and demographic variables in patients with RRMS. The study involved 22 individuals with RRMS (aged 23 to 49 years) and 22 matching controls. All the individuals with RRMS were in the remission phase. The assessments were carried out using MoCA, BDI-II, Halstead Category Test, Porteus Maze Test, verbal fluency tasks and Stroop Colour-Word Interference Test. The findings show that the two groups differed significantly in all the tests. All patients with RRMS in the remission phase presented at least one cognitive deficit, observed in general cognitive functioning, abstract reasoning or other executive functions, i.e., fluency, interference suppression, planning, or ability to modify activity in response to feedback. The deficits in most cases (except for those measured with the MoCA, Category Tests and phonemic fluency), are not related to intensity of depression and duration of the disease. Findings suggest that the diagnostic process in the case of patients with RRMS may include psychological assessment focusing on potentially existing cognitive, mainly executive, deficits and their severity.

The executive functions, intellectual capacity, and psychiatric disorders in adolescents with Chiari malformation type 1.

In the last two decades, the non-motor functions of the cerebellum have become the centre of attention for researchers. Anecdotal observations of cognitive and psychiatric manifestations of cerebellar lesions have increased this interest. We aimed to investigate the executive function (EF), intellectual capacity, and comorbid psychiatric disorders in adolescents with Chiari malformation type 1 (CM1), which is a pathological manifestation of posterior cranial fossa structures include the cerebellum. The Chiari group consisted of ten adolescents aged 12-18 years old, and the control group consisted of 13 healthy adolescents with similar age and sex with patients. Stroop test (ST), trail making test (TMT), and Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Parent form (BRIEF) were used to evaluate EF; Kent EGY and Porteus Maze Test was used to measuring the intelligence quotient (IQ), and a semi-structured interview was used to determine the psychiatric disorders. EF test scores were found comparable between the two groups. IQ scores of the Chiari group were found in the normal range, but significantly lower than controls. No significant difference was revealed in terms of comorbid psychiatric disorders between the two groups. In this study, we did not observe an impairing effect of CM1 on EF and intelligence. Also, we found that CM1 did not cause more psychiatric disorders compared to controls. Further studies need to support our findings in adolescents diagnosed with CM1.

Complex Gait in Preschool Children in a Dual‐Task Paradigm Is Related to Sex and Cognitive Functioning: A Cross‐Sectional Study Providing an Innovative Test and Reference Values

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to design and validate a complex gait test (CGT) in preschool children and to examine the relationship between CGT performance and age, sex, and cognitive functioning. A total of 1,040 preschool children, aged 3 to 6 years, participated in this study. In all children, standardized dynamic balance test, and several cognitive functioning measures were used. The results indicate that the CGT has adequate reliability and validity. In the test–retest analysis (n = 90), the intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.901 (p &lt; .001). A significant correlation between the initial test and retest (r = 0.821, p &lt; .001) and between the CGT and dynamic balance test (r = −0.432, p &lt; .001), Porteus Maze Test (PMT) (r = −0.416, p = .011), and Goodenough‐Harris Drawing Test (GHDT) (r = −0.386, p &lt; .001) was found. Boys showed a better performance than girls at 3–6 years old. The CGT showed excellent reliability and validity in preschool children and may serve as a potential biomarker in cognitive development.

Funciones ejecutivas en niños escolarizados con alta y baja creatividad

Objetivo: El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar el perfil de funcionamiento ejecutivo característicoen niños creativos.&#x0D; Método: Participaron 200 niños y niñas escolarizados de la provincia de Entre Ríos, República Argentina,seleccionados por medio de un muestreo intencional. La creatividad se evaluó por medio de la pruebade figuras del Test de Pensamiento Creativo de Torrance (TTCT), Forma A y la prueba verbal CREA C,inteligencia creativa. Como medida de las Funciones Ejecutivas (FE), se emplearon diferentes pruebaspara valorar cada dominio: (1) subtest de memoria de trabajo del WISC IV; (2) Stroop, test de colores ypalabras, para inhibición; (3) WCST computarizado, para flexibilidad cognitiva reactiva y Fluidez verbal yFive Point Test para fluidez cognitiva espontánea, y (4) Laberintos de Porteus para valorar la planificación.Para estudiar perfiles de funcionamiento ejecutivo se realizaron MANCOVAS ingresando la inteligenciacomo covariable.&#x0D; Resultados: Los resultados del presente estudio sugieren la existencia de un perfil de FE en niñoscreativos en función de su desempeño en la prueba de figuras del TTCT (F de Hotelling (7, 90) = 3.404;p = .003, η2 parcial = .21) y del CREA C (F de Hotelling (7, 98) = 8.831; p &lt; .001, η2 parcial = .39).&#x0D; Conclusión: Los hallazgos del presente estudio muestran que los niños con mayor creatividad, tantoen tareas de dibujo como en tareas verbales, presentan un perfil de FE caracterizado por una mayorcapacidad de memoria de trabajo, inhibición y flexibilidad cognitiva espontánea. Sin embargo, pareceríaque la naturaleza de la tarea es un factor que podría modular la contribución de los procesos cognitivosde alto orden al potencial creativo.

Inter-Correlations Between Tests Of Intelligence In Students With Learning Disabilities

Background: Tests of intelligence are a prelude to the diagnosis of specific learning disabilities. This study selected three commonly preferred performance measures, such as the Porteus Maze Test (PMT), Seguin Form Board (SFB), and Gesell Drawing Test (GDT), to examine their inter-correlations. A single-shot correlation survey design was combined with convenience sampling to determine the nature, direction, degree, and extent of co-variance of test scores between the chosen tests for an overall sample of 161 students with specific learning disabilities. The overall trends and concerning personal-demographic variables like age, gender, level of schooling, and type of curriculum, were investigated. For the overall sample (N: 161), the obtained mean SFB mental age of 109.79 (SD: 20.38), GDT mental age of 98.80 (SD: 20.07), and PMT mental age of 103.75 (SD: 29.07) months. The GDT appears to be estimating mental ages less by five points against the PMT, and by twelve points against the SFB in the targeted children. Analysis of inter-correlations between the test scores on pairs for the three tests of intelligence shows moderate to highly significant correlation (p: 0.05) ranging from 0.48 and 0.53, irrespective of which among them is used as anchor test. This means that they all possess good convergent validity for their regular use during clinical practice in the diagnosis of children with learning disabilities.

Sociodemographic Characteristics, Risk Factors, and Prevalence of Comorbidity among Children and Adolescents with Intellectual Disability: A Cross-sectional Study

ABSTRACTIntroduction: Intellectual disability (ID) is characterized by limitations in cognitive and adaptive functioning. The aim of this study is to examine sociodemographic characteristics, perinatal and childhood risk factors, and prevalence of psychiatric and biomedical comorbidities in children with ID.Methods: 260 patients with ID were included in the study (mean age: 8.42 ± 3.59, 61% male, 75% mild ID). The Ankara Developmental Screening Inventory, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Revised, and the Porteus Maze Test were used to assess the intelligence of the participants. An additional questionnaire was used to investigate their sociodemographic characteristics and birth, developmental, and medical histories.Results: Adverse perinatal/neonatal events (p < .001), biomedical comorbidities (p < .001) and seizure/convulsion history (p < .001) were strongly associated with the moderate-severe ID. The children with mild ID had more emotional-social deprivation (p = .022). Low socioeconomic situation, parental education, and teenage parenthood were risk factors for stimulus deficiency. While internalizing disorders were more common in those with mild ID and among girls, externalizing disorders were more common in those with moderate-severe ID and among boys.Conclusion: Interventions to perinatal/neonatal events may reduce the rate of moderate-severe ID. Evaluation of psychiatric and medical comorbidities and elimination of emotional-social deprivation should be fundamental components of the services offered to children with ID.

Assessment of upper airway obstruction in children with specific learning disorder

Aim: A growing number of findings suggest that there is an important relationship between upper airway obstruction (UAO) and specific learning disorder (SLD). However, existing evidence is limited to very few studies. We, thus, aimed to explore chronic UAO conditions in children with specific learning disabilities.Materials and Methods: This study involved seventy-seven children aged 7 to 10 years with SLD and eighty-six healthy children matching in age and gender. Psychiatric disorders were diagnosed through the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DMS-5) Criteria. Porteus Maze Test and Kent-EGY test were used to assess the intelligence of the participants. The diagnoses of UAO were made by a physical examination, a detailed otorhinolaryngologic examination, the anamnesis and clinical history, anterior rhinoscopy, and flexible endoscopic nasopharyngoscopy according to the type of UAO.Results: The rates of having at least one pathology causing UAO and secondary sleep difficulties due to UAO were significantly higher in children with SLD compared to controls. The severity of SLD was significantly associated with the severity of UAO and the presence of secondary sleep difficulties, but not the presence of UAO. The verbal and total IQ scores were significantly affected by the presence and severity of UAO, while the presence of secondary sleep difficulties significantly impacted all IQ scores.Conclusion: Parents, teachers, otorhinolaryngologists, child psychiatrists, and pediatricians should be aware that the association between learning disorders and UAO. It also would be advisable to screen children with learning disorders in terms of UAO, and vice versa.

The Key of the Maze: The role of mental imagery and cognitive flexibility in navigational planning

Spatial navigation planning ability relies on both mental imagery and cognitive flexibility. Considering the importance of planning ability in everyday life, several neuropsychological tests are used in clinical practice for its assessment, although some of these are not aimed at assessing the strategies of navigational planning. The Porteus Maze Test (PMT) and the Key Search Task (KST) require to plan a strategy in a maze and in an imagined space, respectively. To the best of our knowledge, although these two tests share some features, the relationship between them has never been explored. The purpose of the present study was to investigate, for the first time, the relationship between the PMT and the KST performances in 38 healthy subjects in order to understand the implications of this association for the assessment of spatial navigation ability. Subjects were subdivided in bad or good navigation planners on the basis of the their KST score. The results of the study have revealed a significant difference (t=2.35; p=0.03) in the number of errors made at the PMT by bad navigational planners (0.78±0.28) and good navigational planners (0.10±0.06). The first group (bad navigational planners) made more errors at the PMT than the good navigational planners (who made less errors at the PMT). This provides evidence of the possibility to use the KST and the PMT in a combined way as a new tool for the assessment of spatial navigational planning ability. Furthermore, this finding highlights the importance of mental imagery and cognitive flexibility in spatial navigation, suggesting that these functions could be the link between a good planning ability and a successful spatial navigation. In conclusion, this study suggests that an efficient navigation would not be possible without a good navigational planning ability.

Performance-Associated Factors of Elderly Patients with a Low Education Level, with Acquired Language Alterations in Tests to Explore Executive Functions

Introduction. Secondary alterations of executive functions occur in brain injuries together with the primary neuropsychological symptoms, irrespective of the location of the damage and the affected neural networks. Such secondary alterations of executive functions in the presence of language alterations, which is the most frequent primary neuropsychological alteration, in addition to exacerbating the linguistic processing deficit, may be associated to multiple factors inherent to the brain injury or the injured patient. Purpose. To describe the secondary neuropsychological alterations of executive functions in elderly patients with low education levels with acquired language disorders and determine general factors of the injury and of the injured patient (etiology, location, time of recovery from the injury, age, education level), associated to such secondary alterations of the Attentional Control System. Patients and Methods. The study was conducted on 68 elderly patients with a low education level with language acquired disorders, of both sexes, ranging between 60 and 80 years of age. The executive functions explored included cognitive flexibility, impulsivity control and inhibition of irrelevant automatisms, with the Trail Making Test, the Porteus Maze Test and series of loops. Statistical processing involved a Distribution of Frequencies and Multiple Ordinal Regression. Results and Conclusions. The statistical analysis found secondary neuropsychological alterations of the executive functioning in the elderly patients with language disorders of the study that are associated to the location and the time of recovery from the injury and are irrespective of age, education level and etiology of the injury.

Heritability and Longitudinal Stability of Planning and Behavioral Disinhibition Based on the Porteus Maze Test

The Porteus Maze Test (PMT) provides measures of planning and behavioral disinhibition. The PMT was administered to 941 twins during Wave 1 (9–10 years) and 320 twins during Wave 2 (11–13 years). Participants were drawn from the University of Southern California Risk Factors for Antisocial Behavior Study (RFAB). Heritability of behavioral disinhibition, determined by PMT Q-Score, were 33% at Wave 1 and 52% at Wave 2. For planning, determined by Test Age, heritability was 53% at Wave 1; at Wave 2, the non-shared environment was important in boys, whereas genetic influences were important in girls. Both indices were modestly stable (r = 0.52; r = 0.37). A common genetic factor influenced both indices, respectively, at the two time points, with no ‘new’ genetic variance at Wave 2; the non-shared environment was time-specific. Thus, both genetic and non-shared environmental influences are important for behavioral disinhibition (Q-Score) and planning (Test Age).

Recidivist criminal behaviour and executive functions: a comparative study

This study sought to analyse the relation between executive functions and criminal recidivism. We assessed a set of cognitive abilities associated with executive functioning in a group of recidivist offenders (n = 19), primary offenders (n = 25) and non-offenders (n = 30). Our results, tested with nonparametric statistics and Monte Carlo method, revealed that there were no executive differences between both groups of offenders but, when compared with non-offenders, the recidivists showed a worse performance in Trail Making Test part B, and the primary offenders presented a significant lower score on Porteus Maze Test Age score. This study suggests that there can be a different pattern of executive functioning deficits associated with the offenders’ criminal record: recidivism may be more related to mental flexibility impairments and primary offenders’ antisocial behaviour may be aggravated by planning deficits.

Neurocognitive functions and behavioral profiles in children with nephropathic cystinosis.

Children with nephropathic cystinosis (NCTN) have evidence of defective intellectual functions and behavioral disorders. This prospective study was performed to detect the cognitive dysfunctions in patients with this rare hereditary lysosomal storage disease, define their behavioral phenotypes, and study the findings on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain. Thirteen patients with confirmed diagnosis of cystinosis (mean age±SD 5.9±3.0, range 1.5-12 years) were subjected to the Stanford Binet test, Porteus Maze test, Child Behavior Checklist, and MRI brain. Thirteen age- and sex-matched children served as the control subjects (mean age±SD 5.9±2.9, range 1.7-12 years). The intelligence quotient (IQ) was significantly lower in patients with cystinosis (P<0.001), with a significant defect in verbal (language, memory, and comprehension) and non-verbal abilities (visual perception and visiospatial and motor performance). A discrepancy between both abilities was detected--the non-verbal ability being lower; however, it did not reach statistical significance. Furthermore, analysis revealed the visiospatial ability to be significantly lower compared to the visual perception. In comparison to healthy controls, children with NCTN had evidence of increased incidence of behavioral problems, mainly social (P=0.023). An MRI of the brain revealed varying degrees of atrophic changes in seven patients. Patients with NCTN need a wider scope of attention and care, encompassing not only the metabolic multisystem derangement, but also the neuropsychological impairment in the context of multidisciplinary management. This approach is crucial in formulating comprehensive plans for social and educational rehabilitation.

Neuropsychological tests and driving in dementia: a review of the recent literature

Neuropsychological tests measure several aspects of cognition and are useful to evaluate elderly drivers with cognitive impairment. However, there is no consensus on a standard battery of tests that could accurately predict safe driving. The aim of this study is to review specific neuropsychological measures that may be useful to predict driving competence of demented individuals. To address neuropsychological tests used for dementia and the ability to drive, the authors searched for the keywords dementia, Alzheimer's, drive, driver, drivers, driving, tests, neuropsychological, and assessment, in Medline, PubMed, ISI and SciELO databases seeking articles from 2000 to 2008. From 131 articles, 27 met the inclusion criteria. Porteus Maze, Clock drawing, Trail B, UFOV and NAB Tests were found to be the most relevant neuropsychological measures for the evaluation of fitness to drive. Porteus Maze, Clock Drawing, Trail B, UFOV and NAB tests highlight visuospatial attention demands and/ or executive function. Those and other visuospatial and executive measures may be useful to predict driving competence of demented individuals.

Executive Functioning in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment: MCI Has Effects on Planning, But Not on Inhibition

ABSTRACT In this study, we compared executive functioning in 32 mild cognitive impairment (MCI) individuals with that of normally aging controls. Cognitive planning tests (Trail Making, Porteus Maze Test, verbal fluency tests) show a group difference favoring the normal controls, but tests for inhibition of prepotent responses (no-go accuracy, two measures of the Stroop effect, and negative priming) failed to uncover a significant group difference. The results indicate that there is no general executive control function impairment in MCI; rather, the deficits found are compatible with the hypothesis that MCI is an accelerated form of normal aging.

The construct of impulsivity revisited

We examine the construct of impulsivity using an organismic-developmental approach. Trait impulsivity was assessed by means of both the Impulsiveness Questionnaire (I 7 or I 5) and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11 or BIS-11-A). Cognitive impulsivity was assessed by means of a computerized Matching Familiar Figures Test, the Porteus Maze Test, the Trail Making Test, a computerized Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, and Circle Tracing. Our data were collected from a total of 182 individuals, ranging in age between 14 and 22 years, divided into two groups. Participants were tested individually, and completed the tests in one session lasting approximately 1.5 h. We were able to substantiate our prediction that the multi-faceted construct of impulsivity becomes more differentiated with age: factor analysis revealed two impulsivity factors in the younger age group (primarily ages 14 and 16), and three impulsivity factors in the older group (primarily ages 20 and 22).

Executive–cognitive functioning in the development of antisocial personality disorder

The present study examined the association of cognitive–executive abilities to two risk factors for alcoholism, i.e., antisocial behaviors and a family history (FH+) of alcohol dependence. A sample of 91 right-handed, non-substance-dependent, young male adults recruited from the community were classified into three groups: (1) a control group of n=32 men with no history of DSM-III-R childhood conduct disorder (CD) or antisocial personality disorder (ASPD); (2) n=25 men who met criteria for a DSM-III-R childhood CD diagnosis, but did not meet diagnostic criteria for ASPD (i.e., CD/ASPD−); and (3) n=34 men who met DSM-III-R criteria for ASPD. They were further divided into those with and without a positive family history of alcoholism. A two-way (Antisocial Profile (3)×Family History of Alcoholism (2)) ANOVA was used to compare several neuropsychological measures of executive–cognitive functioning (ECF) ability. Verbal abstraction ability was found to be significantly lower in ASPD subjects compared with controls and CD-only subjects, inversely related to antisocial behavior severity (as measured by symptom count). CD-only and control subjects' abstraction ability were statistically indistinguishable. FH+ was associated with increased errors in planning performance on the Porteus Maze Test and diminished performance on Luria's simple alternate-tapping motor tasks. The effect was more pronounced when inhibition of prepotent motor planning was required. Results are consistent with previous work examining ECF ability in antisocial samples that find subtle differences in ECF ability compared to controls. The findings suggest that normal versus abnormal behavioral outcome for children with conduct problems may be influenced by cognitive ability profile, perhaps because of varying maturational processes.

Executive function ability in persons with aphasia

Background: There is an increasing recognition that the communication problems one observes in persons with aphasia extend beyond verbal deficits and that the myriad of symptoms observed are not solely due to a faulty linguistic system. Rather, there exists a coalition of causal elements resulting in a wide range of communicative deficits. There is some preliminary evidence suggesting that communicative success of clients with aphasia may depend on the integrity of executive function skills. Executive functions are called into play when an individual is involved in a complex, novel activity. They allow us to plan, sequence, organise, and monitor goal-directed activities in a flexible manner as demanded by situational and environmental changes. When linguistic skills are impaired, individuals need to rely on other cognitive skills in order to communicate. Aims: The purpose of this study was to explore executive functioning ability in persons with aphasia. Methods & Procedures: A total of 15 individuals with aphasia and 12 healthy control subjects participated in this study. Three dimensions of performance were examined (accuracy, speed, and efficiency) in the context of neuropsychological tests designed to examine cognitive flexibility and goal-directed planning (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Porteus Maze Test, Tower of London, and Tower of Hanoi). Outcomes & Results: Results indicated that the two groups performed with similar levels of accuracy on two of the four tests. However, significant differences were found on all speed and efficiency variables, suggesting decreased executive functioning skills in the group of individuals with aphasia. Conclusions: It is important to consider executive functioning ability in clients with aphasia and attempt to determine the influence of executive function skill on communicative performance. Understanding the cognitive abilities as well as the linguistic abilities of these clients may ultimately help clinicians determine which patients are better candidates for intervention as well as which treatment approaches would be most efficient and beneficial.