Port Kembla Harbour Research Articles

High-density geopolymer concrete for Port Kembla breakwater upgrade

Marine environments can pose continuous threats to coastal infrastructure, especially during episodic storm events. Thus, monitoring and maintenance of rock or concrete units-armoured coastal breakwaters are required, especially under present climate change scenarios, where changes in wave behaviour are anticipated and coastal structures are likely to be exposed to even greater wave energy resulting in higher rates of damage. A possible pathway towards the upgrading of existing breakwaters is to introduce high-density armour units, suggested by theoretical estimates and physical model test findings. In this project, a unique, sustainable high-density geopolymer concrete (GPC) mix was developed and trialled in fabricating armour units for upgrading existing coastal breakwaters. The system developed in laboratories was upscaled for field applications and is being tested at the Northern breakwater of NSW Ports’ Port Kembla Harbour. The concrete uses steel furnace slag (SFS) aggregate in an alkali-activated blended fly ash-blast furnace slag binder proportioned to facilitate the elimination of delayed expansion of the aggregate. The concrete properties were measured and microstructural analyses undertaken. The results show that SFS aggregate offers higher bulk density to the concrete alongside satisfactory strength in on-site curing and can reduce armour mass requirements at the same level of structural stability. Microstructural analyses confirm the elimination of SFS aggregate free-lime expansion. This important result provides a novel approach to both repair of existing structures and construction of new structures with reductions to both cost and carbon footprint.

Distribution and sources of trace element pollutants in the sediments of the industrialised Port Kembla Harbour, New South Wales, Australia

A detailed geochemical analysis of sediment samples from the heavily industrialised Port Kembla Harbour, 70 km south of Sydney in New South Wales, Australia, has delineated areas that are heavily contaminated with trace element pollutants. Local creek delta sand accumulations, basin mud deposits, reclamation deposits and exposed bedrock on the present harbour floor are consistent with the twentieth century Port Kembla industrial land and harbour development history, as well as known maritime shipping practices. The closed electrolytic copper refinery, one of the two major pollutant sources, has provided a very clear signature in the harbour opposite the main drain that discharged from these works. Copper pollution (up to 6070 mg/kg) is strongly correlated with high concentrations of gold, selenium, antimony, arsenic, lead and zinc. These pollutants appear to occur as silt- and sand-sized particulate matter, as well as pollutants that are probably chemically bound to clay, pyrite and organic matter. The second main pollutant source is the BlueScope steelworks that has been responsible for high concentrations of iron (and minor associated cobalt), kish, pyrolytic carbon and fly ash. The steelworks, along with other industrial, urban and automobile sources, supply additional quantities of copper, lead and zinc to the aquatic environment. Coal and coke dust also form important pollutants. The pollutants are currently fairly stable under the prevailing alkaline reducing conditions within the sediment. The proposed future reclamation and dredging within the harbour needs to consider the implications of moving highly contaminated sediment, without altering its alkalinity or oxidation potential, to prevent release of contaminants.

Dredging related metal bioaccumulation in oysters

Bivalves are regularly used as biomonitors of contaminants in coastal and estuarine waters. We used oysters to assess short term changes in metal availability caused by the resuspension of contaminated sediments. Sydney Rock Oysters, Saccostrea glomerata, were deployed at multiple sites in Port Kembla Harbour and two reference estuaries for 11weeks before dredging and for two equivalent periods during dredging. Saccostrea experienced large increases in accumulation of zinc, copper and tin during dredging in the Port relative to oysters deployed in reference estuaries. Lead and tin were found to be permanently elevated within Port Kembla. We present a clear and un-confounded demonstration of the potential for dredging activities to cause large scale increases in water column contamination. Our results also demonstrate the usefulness of external reference locations in overcoming temporal confounding in bioaccumulation studies.

Differential tolerance to metals among populations of the introduced bryozoan Bugula neritina

Resistance to heavy metals is a potentially important trait for introduced marine organisms, facilitating their successful invasion into disturbed natural communities. We conducted laboratory and field experiments to examine differential resistance to copper (Cu) between two source populations of the introduced bryozoan Bugula neritina, originating from a polluted (Port Kembla Harbour, NSW, Australia) and an unpolluted (Botany Bay, NSW, Australia) environment. A laboratory toxicity test was conducted to test the relative resistance of B. neritina recruits from the two sources, by measuring the attachment success, survival and growth of individuals exposed to a range of Cu concentrations (0, 25, 50 and 100 μg l−1 Cu). Upon completion, reciprocal transplantation of the colonies to the original polluted and unpolluted locations was carried out to assess ongoing survival and growth of colonies in the field. B. neritina colonies originating from the polluted Port Kembla Harbour had increased resistance to Cu relative to populations from an unpolluted part of Botany Bay. There appeared to be a cost associated with increased metal tolerance. In the laboratory, Botany Bay recruits displayed significantly higher growth in control treatments and significantly poorer growth at 100 μg l−1 Cu with respect to Port Kembla Harbour individuals, which showed unusually uniform and low growth irrespective of Cu concentration. No difference in attachment success or post-metamorphic survival was observed between populations. Field transplantation showed copper resistance in Port Kembla Harbour colonies constituted an advantage in polluted but not benign environments. The findings of this study provide evidence of the benefits to invasive species of pollution tolerance and suggest that human disturbance can facilitate the establishment and spread of invasive species in marine systems.

Fractionation of sedimentary arsenic from Port Kembla Harbour, NSW, Australia

The binding of arsenic in sediments of the heavily industrialised Port Kembla Harbour, NSW, Australia, has been investigated. Both dredge and core samples have been used to develop a sieving/sequential extraction (SE) procedure. Dredge samples included oxic surficial and deeper anoxic sediment. The main core sample analysed was 18 cm deep, sliced at 2 cm intervals. Sediment was sieved to three size ranges (<63 microm, 63-250 microm, >250 microm) and each of these was then subjected to a four step SE, sequentially solubilizing arsenic as ion exchangeable, 1 M HCl soluble, NH(2)OH.HCl soluble, and strong oxidising acid soluble. Concentrations of 50-500 mg As kg(-1) were found, elevated well above local background values. The core sample showed elevated concentrations of arsenic within the top 6-8 cm (300-500 mg As kg(-1)), relative to the deeper sediment (100-200 mg As kg(-1)). Substantial portions of the total arsenic present in the 0-8 cm sediments of core and dredge samples, were found to be soluble in 1 M pH 5 phosphate buffer or 1 M HCl. Arsenic in the lower 8-18 cm of the core displayed different solubility, the fourth stage SE strong acid digestion being required to solubilize >90% of the deep sediment arsenic. It appears that diagenesis had resulted in remobilisation of weakly bound arsenic with subsequent diffusion and deposition in surficial layers. Strong acid soluble arsenic present in deeper sediments has two possible origins: sedimented as strongly bound remaining untouched by diagenetic events, or subjected to diagenetic reactions such as pyritization, which lead to more stable crystalline forms of minerals.

Changes in the Marine Environment of Port Kembla Harbour, NSW, Australia, 1975–1995: A Review

Data on water quality, sediment quality and aquatic organisms in Port Kembla Harbour from the 1970s to the 1990s are reviewed. In the 1970s, the marine environment of Port Kembla Harbour was in poor condition as a result of pollution from heavy industries. Elevated concentrations of pollutants were found in water, sediment and fish in the harbour; aquatic biodiversity was limited and many fish kills were reported. With the implementation of pollution reduction programs (required by legislation changes) by the industries surrounding the harbour since the 1970s, pollution in the harbour has been reduced dramatically, and the quality of the marine environment of the harbour has noticeably improved. Large reductions in the concentrations of certain toxic wastes and heavy metals in water have occurred. Marine life has returned to the whole harbour (parts were described in 1977 as abiotic). Contaminants in fish have decreased. Despite this achievement, however, there is still considerable room for improvement in the quality of the marine environment of the harbour.

Larval settlement of marine fouling organisms in polluted water from Port Kembla Harbour, Australia

The rate of settlement of larvae of the bryozoans Bugula neritina and Tricellaria porteri was significantly reduced in polluted water from Port Kembla Harbour, Australia, compared with that in water from a minimally polluted bay. In contrast, larval development of the serpulid Galeolaria caespitosa and settlement of the bryozoan Watersipora arcuata were not affected greatly by exposure to the polluted water. The retardation of settlement of some marine fouling species in Port Kembla Harbour was attributed to high levels of cyanide, ammonia and phenolic compounds. This may explain previously documented changes in the development and succession of the fouling communities in Port Kembla Harbour.

Accumulation and regulation of heavy metals by the intertidal snail Polinices sordidus

The gastropod Polinices sordidus was collected from an uncontaminated area in Quibray Bay, New South Wales, Australia, in 1990. The snails were exposed for 2 wk to polluted sediments collected from Port Kembla Harbour, Blackwattle Bay, Lake Illawarra, Lake Macquarie in New South Wales, Australia, and the Derwent River in Tasmania, Australia. Metal accumulation and regulation by this species were evaluated. Metal concentrations in snail tissues and total, EDTA and HCl-extractable metals in the sediments were compared. Copper concentrations were extremely varied in snails exposed to the same sediment. This was not the case for other matals tested. No accumulation of copper was found in snails exposed to different sediments. There was no zinc accumulation from sediments containing less then 10 mg Zn/g. P. sordidus could accumulate lead, manganese and iron from some of the sediments. Manganese concentrations in the snail tissues correlated with total, HCl-extractable and, more significantly, EDTA-extractable Mn in the sediments. P. sordidus was not considered to be a good bioindicator of copper and zinc contaimination in sediments; however, this species could be used as an indicator of lead and manganese contamination.

The effects of dredging on the larval settlement and community development of fouling organisms in Port Kembla Harbour, Australia

Artificial substrates were used to investigate changes in the settlement and early development of fouling communities during dredging of Port Kembla Harbour, Australia. A total of 19 fouling species were recorded during the study. Communities that had developed before dredging contained almost twice as many species as those whose development took place during dredging. Only two species, a bryozoan and a hydroid, were recorded in communities that had developed during both periods. Ascidians, barnacles, serpulids and sponges were most sensitive to the increased levels of turbidity produced by the dredging operations. As a consequence the initial development of the fouling communities was found to be significantly retarded. A combination of factors including, direct physical removal of larvac, physiological and toxic stress, was thought to be responsible for these effects.

Transference of marine fouling communities between polluted and unpolluted sites: Impact on structure

Fouling communities were transferred between Wollongong Harbour (Australia), a relatively unpolluted area, and nearby Port Kembla Harbour which is affected by pollution from nearby heavy industries. Those that had been transferred from Wollongong Harbour were similar in structure after two months to those that had developed entirely in Port Kembla Harbour. Conversely, the communities transferred from Port Kembla Harbour had a similar structure to those that had developed only in Wollongong Harbour. Many of the species transferred from Wollongong Harbour were thought to have been killed by periodic high concentrations of pollutants or overgrown by more competitive species. Those few that survived the polluted conditions were mainly bryozoans and serpulids. Surprisingly, many supposedly pollution-tolerant species transferred from Port Kembla Harbour did not survive in Wollongong Harbour. It is suggested that this was because these animals could not tolerate the lower nutrient conditions in the latter area. Space once occupied by these species was quickly colonised by species found only in Wollongong Harbour. These results have important implications for the functioning of these communities.

The Effects of Industrial Pollution on the Development and Succession of Marine Fouling Communities I. Analysis of Species Richness and Frequency Data

Abstract. The effects of industrial pollution were determined by comparing the pattern of development of marine fouling communities situated along a pollution gradient within Port Kembla Harbour (Australia) with those from nearby Wollongong Harbour, a relatively unpolluted area. Fifty‐three fouling species were found in the communities from Wollongong Harbour compared to only 40 in those from Port Kembla Harbour. Twenty‐eight species (including many bryozoans) occurred only in the former, while 15 species occurred solely in the latter. Ten of the 25 species common to both areas were more numerous in Port Kembla Harbour, probably because of the greater availability of free substratum and food in this area. The species richness of fouling communities in Port Kembla Harbour was found to decrease as pollutant concentrations increased. In both study areas, communities established in summer showed significantly higher species richness than those whose development was initiated in winter. This difference was less pronounced in Port Kembla Harbour and was attributed to the effects of pollution on larval settlement. Although species richness increased at all sites through time, Wollongong Harbour communities contained a greater number of species at the end of the experiment than communities from Port Kembla Harbour. Despite this, fewer species were found in the very early developmental stages of the communities from Wollongong Harbour. This result highlights the inherent problems associated with using species richness or diversity measures as a means of determining marine environmental quality.

The Effects of Industrial Pollution on the Development and Succession of Marine Fouling Communities II. Multivariate Analysis of Succession

Abstract. The successional stages of fouling communities from 3 sites located along a pollution gradient within Port Kembla Harbour (Australia) were compared quantitatively with those from Wollongong Harbour, a relatively unpolluted area located close by.A multivariate classification of the data showed that the development of fouling communities in Port Kembla Harbour was very different from that in Wollongong Harbour, involving different types of species. In addition, the classification identified a secondary pattern in the data which showed that the species composition of the Port Kembla Harbour communities changed with time, independently of any seasonal effects.A principal coordinate analysis of the data was able to further expand on these findings. It demonstrated that the succession of fouling communities in Port Kembla Harbour involved a process whereby one group of species (ascidians) was gradually replaced through time by a second group of different species (bivalves). In contrast, the communities in Wollongong Harbour were dominated by inhibitory interactions. The succession in this area mainly involved species (particularly bryozoans) which colonised during the initial stages of development and remained in the communities as they continued to develop.Changes in the succession of fouling communities from Port Kembla Harbour were thought to be due to the loss of pollution sensitive species, such as bryozoans, from the environment. This was not attributed to the acute, toxic effects of the pollutants, but rather to more subtle and indirect effects.

Water quality control and its effect on the concentration of heavy metals in Port Kembla Harbour, N.S.W.

The concentrations of five heavy metals (iron, lead, zinc, copper and cadmium) were measured at two sites in Port Kembla Harbour over a period of 9 months. In comparing the results of this study with those recorded previously at these sites during 1974 and 1978, it is shown that the concentrations of all five metals have decreased substantially over the last decade. It is proposed that this decrease is due to the implementation of water quality control programmes by industries in close proximity to the harbour. The problems associated with undertaking future programmes in systems such as Port Kembla Harbour are discussed in the light of these results.

Wind-generated, high-frequency edge waves

The effect of longshore wind stress on high-frequency edge waves, over a convex, exponential, semi- infinite sheet, is determined analytically. Comparison is made with physical data measured at Port Kembla Harbour, on the eastern coast of Australia. Good agreement is obtained for the amplitudes of the waves, as well as for their periods.

A Comparative Study of Heavy Metal Accumulation in Tissues of the Crested Tern, Sterna Bergii. Breeding Near an Industrial Port Before and After Harbour Dredging and Ocean Dumping.

Eight different tissues taken from crested terns, Sterna bergii, were analysed for the metals cadmium, lead, copper, chromium, manganese, zinc and iron. Birds were taken from a breeding colony before and after the commencement of harbour dredging and ocean dumping operations in nearby Port Kembla Harbour. Levels of chromium and lead were similar in both adult and fledgling terns after dredging began, indicating that chicks acquired these metals from food brought to them by adult birds. However, these metals were found in relatively low concentrations. No conclusive evidence was found of increased assimilation of heavy metals into the trophic structure of communities in waters adjacent to the Five Islands after dredging and ocean dumping operations.