Fallow Deer Population Research Articles

Site fidelity trumps disturbance: aerial shooting does not cause surviving fallow deer (Dama dama) to disperse

Context Aerial shooting is an important tool for managing the economic and environmental impacts of widespread wild fallow deer populations in eastern Australia and could be crucial for mounting an effective response to an emergency animal disease incursion. However, there is a concern that the disturbance caused by aerial shooting could cause infected animals to disperse, thereby transmitting pathogens to previously uninfected areas. Aims We sought to describe the nature and extent of spatial behavioural changes in fallow deer exposed to aerial shooting to: (1) assess the risk that aerial shooting poses to disease spread, and (2) better understand how aerial shooting can contribute to routine deer management programs. Methods We contrasted movement rates, activity range areas, and daily activity patterns of 48 GPS-collared fallow deer before, during and after exposure to aerial shooting at three sites in New South Wales. Key results No collared deer left its pre-shoot activity range area during shooting or within 30 days after shooting finished. Observed behaviour changes included increased daily and hourly distance travelled by female deer during and after shooting, increased activity range areas for female deer after shooting, and increased nocturnal activity in female and male deer during shooting. However, observed changes were minor, temporary, localised, and variable among sites. Conclusions Collared deer showed strong site fidelity despite repeated intense disturbance and substantial population reductions. We found no evidence to support concerns that aerial shooting poses a hazard of disease spread. Implications Aerial shooting should be retained as a key control tool for managing wild fallow deer populations in Australia, including for reducing disease host population densities in the event of an emergency animal disease incursion.

SARS-CoV-2 Seropositivity in Urban Population of Wild Fallow Deer, Dublin, Ireland, 2020-2022.

SARS-CoV-2 can infect wildlife, and SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern might expand into novel animal reservoirs, potentially by reverse zoonosis. White-tailed deer and mule deer of North America are the only deer species in which SARS-CoV-2 has been documented, raising the question of whether other reservoir species exist. We report cases of SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity in a fallow deer population located in Dublin, Ireland. Sampled deer were seronegative in 2020 when the Alpha variant was circulating in humans, 1 deer was seropositive for the Delta variant in 2021, and 12/21 (57%) sampled deer were seropositive for the Omicron variant in 2022, suggesting host tropism expansion as new variants emerged in humans. Omicron BA.1 was capable of infecting fallow deer lung type-2 pneumocytes and type-1-like pneumocytes or endothelial cells ex vivo. Ongoing surveillance to identify novel SARS-CoV-2 reservoirs is needed to prevent public health risks during human-animal interactions in periurban settings.

Planning for Deer-Hunting Management at the Local and Regional Scales: Reconciling Economic, Social and Ecological Functions

Game species with home ranges exceeding the area of the management units may entail conflicts over hunting rights and cause damage to crops and forest stands in surrounding areas. This is currently the case in the Mendro Mountain Range (Portugal), inhabited by free-ranging red (Cervus elaphus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) populations. This study’s primary goal was to uncover the processes underlying these tensions and identify solutions to overcome them, thus reconciling the economic, social, and ecological functions of hunting. We analyzed data from three different sources of information regarding the surveyed management units: biophysical and anthropical spatial data collected using a GIS; typology, whether fenced, area and game bag results, data provided by a public institute; crop and forest damage locations reported by game managers. Approximately half of the surveyed open management units reported damage. We found no relationship between damage and game bag results, regardless of the typology and habitat quality index. To address this disconnection between the negative and positive values associated with deer locally, we proposed habitat management solutions. It is of chief importance to keep valuable crops apart from deer’s refuge cover, such as bushy areas, to minimize damage in management units where deer hunting is a subsidiary activity. Conversely, in management units where deer hunting is of significant economic importance, the food and refuge cover should be closely interspersed to increase the management unit’s carrying capacity. To improve the efficacy of measures such as this at a regional scale, as in the Mendro Mountain Range, we recommend implementing a so-called Global Management Plan. In Portuguese law, this governance instrument applies to the entire biologic unit where the deer populations occur, thus implying arrangements between the involved stakeholders and multiple other concerned institutions.

First Results on the Presence of Mycotoxins in the Liver of Pregnant Fallow Deer (Dama dama) Hinds and Fetuses.

Reproductive abnormalities have been observed in fallow deer populations in Hungary. We supposed mycotoxin contamination to be one of the possible causes because multi-mycotoxin contamination is known to be dangerous even at low toxin levels, especially for young animals. We investigated the spatial pattern of mycotoxin occurrences and the relationship between maternal and fetal mycotoxin levels. A total of 72 fallow deer embryos and their mothers were sampled in seven forested regions in Hungary in the 2020/2021 hunting season. We analyzed Aflatoxin (AF), Zearalenone (ZEA), Fumonizin B1 (FB1), DON, and T2-toxin concentrations in maternal and fetal livers by ELISA. AF was present in 70% and 82%, ZEA in 41% and 96%, DON in 90% and 98%, T2-toxin in 96% and 85%, and FB1 in 84% and 3% of hind and fetus livers, respectively. All mycotoxins passed into the fetus, but only Fumonizin B1 rarely passed. The individual variability of mycotoxin levels was extremely high, but the spatial differences were moderate. We could not prove a relation between the maternal and fetal mycotoxin concentrations, but we found an accumulation of ZEA and DON in the fetuses. These results reflect the possible threats of mycotoxins to the population dynamics and reproduction of wild fallow deer.

The Stone, the Deer, and the Mountain: Lower Paleolithic Scrapers and Early Human Perceptions of the Cosmos

AbstractEvidence from the Levantine Late Lower Paleolithic sites of Jaljulia and Qesem Cave suggests that Quina scrapers, an innovation in a category of tools used mostly for butchery, emerged with changes in hunting practices. Quina scrapers were often made of non-local flint from the Samarian highlands, a home range of fallow deer populations throughout the ages. The predominance of fallow deer in the human diet following the disappearance of megafauna made scrapers key tools in human subsistence. Particular stone tools and particular prey animals, thus, became embedded in an array of practical, cosmological, and ontological conceptions whose origin we trace back to Paleolithic times. The mountains of Samaria, a source of both animals and stone under discussion, were part of this nexus. We present archaeological and ethnographic evidence of the practical and perceptual bonds between Paleolithic humans, animals, stones, and the landscape they shared.

The 10,000-year biocultural history of fallow deer and its implications for conservation policy

Over the last 10,000 y, humans have manipulated fallow deer populations with varying outcomes. Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) are now endangered. European fallow deer (Dama dama) are globally widespread and are simultaneously considered wild, domestic, endangered, invasive and are even the national animal of Barbuda and Antigua. Despite their close association with people, there is no consensus regarding their natural ranges or the timing and circumstances of their human-mediated translocations and extirpations. Our mitochondrial analyses of modern and archaeological specimens revealed two distinct clades of European fallow deer present in Anatolia and the Balkans. Zooarchaeological evidence suggests these regions were their sole glacial refugia. By combining biomolecular analyses with archaeological and textual evidence, we chart the declining distribution of Persian fallow deer and demonstrate that humans repeatedly translocated European fallow deer, sourced from the most geographically distant populations. Deer taken to Neolithic Chios and Rhodes derived not from nearby Anatolia, but from the Balkans. Though fallow deer were translocated throughout the Mediterranean as part of their association with the Greco-Roman goddesses Artemis and Diana, deer taken to Roman Mallorca were not locally available Dama dama, but Dama mesopotamica. Romans also initially introduced fallow deer to Northern Europe but the species became extinct and was reintroduced in the medieval period, this time from Anatolia. European colonial powers then transported deer populations across the globe. The biocultural histories of fallow deer challenge preconceptions about the divisions between wild and domestic species and provide information that should underpin modern management strategies.

Effect of the upkeep method, in natural habitat or farm maintenance

The research was performed on 116 fallow deer individuals, including 58 free-living and 58 farmed individuals. The age of the fallow deer ranged from 1.5 to 3 years. The research involved the use of free-living fallow deer carcasses acquired as a result of a cull during huntings in the Zamrzenica Forest Inspectorate, in the kujawskopomorskie province, whereas the farmed fallow deer carcasses were made available for research by the Bomafar Cervidae farm. Of all the individuals for each upkeep method, a group of does and a group of bucks were separated. The aim of the paper was to determine and to compare the values of the metrics of the alimentary tract in two different populations of fallow deer, namely living in a natural hunting ground and kept in the farm system. The morphometric measurements were performed on the carcasses without internal organs. The measurements were taken using the metal tape at the accuracy down to 1 millimetre. The measurements of the intestine length and the capacity of stomachs concerned the unpreserved material. The intestines not emptied from the contents were measured once they were spread on a wet non-adhesive surface. The results of the research demonstrated that the metrics of the digestive tract in fallow deer depend considerably on the method of the animal upkeep and on its sex and there were significant differences in the relative length of intestine and its respective sections.

Inter‐population variability in movement parameters: practical implications for population density estimation

AbstractMotion‐sensitive cameras are popular as non‐invasive monitoring tools, and several methods have been developed to estimate population densities from camera data. These methods frequently rely on auxiliary movement data including the distance traveled by an individual in a day and the proportion of the day that an animal spends moving when individual recognition is not possible. The estimation of these movement parameters is time‐consuming, which could limit the applicability of cameras to estimate population density. To investigate the relevance of measuring movement parameters for the target population, we monitored 54 wildlife populations of red deer (Cervus elaphus), fallow deer (Dama dama), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in different seasons through Europe with cameras. We estimated 91‐day ranges and activity levels. We fitted mixed models for day range and activity level as response variables to assess if the inter‐population variability in movement was explained by a set of a priori relevant geographical, environmental, biological, and management predictors. We then explored the bias in density estimates obtained in 25 independent populations when using predicted movement data. There was high intra‐species variation in day range and activity level among species and populations. Only species explained a small proportion of this variability; other predictor variables did not. We observed bias in densities when predicting the day range and activity for independent populations. Considering the intra‐species variability in movement parameters and the consequent unacceptable bias in density estimates, we recommend that monitoring and conservation programs estimate movement parameters for the target population and survey populations from camera data for more accurate density estimates. While this increases the handling time needed to estimate densities, it is worth the cost because of the reliability of camera‐based methodologies to estimate needed movement parameters.

How can we tackle interruptions to human–wildlife feeding management? Adding media campaigns to the wildlife manager's toolbox

AbstractIn recent years, wildlife managers have been seeking ways to reduce the occurrence of independent, recreational human–wildlife feeding interactions, which continue to gain global popularity and may have negative effects for the humans and wildlife involved. Current popular methods, such as signage and posters, have yielded mixed results and their application is often interrupted, although the effects of these interruptions on feeding levels are currently unknown. This has led to calls to both identify a management option that can be applied successfully from a distance and to determine whether this action may assist in recovering long‐term programmes from the potential effects of interruptions. Marketing and media tools have been shown to successfully change human behaviours in conservation campaigns, flagging them as a potential tool that could be applied to human–wildlife feeding management.Here, we performed a 4‐year study using a wild fallow deer population in a popular urban green space as our model system. We tracked changes in human feeding behaviours across four different management stages. These included premanagement (stage 1), during traditional management (i.e. ‘don't feed the deer’ signage, stage 2), mid‐interruption (i.e. COVID‐19 pandemic, stage 3) and during the application of a structured media campaign (stage 4).We found that feeding by visitors decreased during traditional management (stage 2), but rapidly returned to premanagement levels during the interruption (stage 3) despite traditional controls still being in place. However, we discovered that feeding dropped significantly after the release of a media campaign (stage 4), despite the audience and conditions being unchanged. We also identified which imagery and educational messages resonated with viewers; information that can be applied to future campaigns in other locations.We, therefore, recommend that wildlife managers both investigate and be prepared for the negative effects that interruptions of any type (e.g. the recent COVID‐19 pandemic, other interruptions to funding) may have on ongoing management campaigns of this ilk. We recommend that media campaigns be explored as a potential tool to reduce the occurrence of the unregulated feeding of wildlife by humans in these sites, thereby promoting better human–wildlife coexistence.Read the freePlain Language Summaryfor this article on the Journal blog.

Aerial culling invasive alien deer with shotguns improves efficiency and welfare outcomes

Invasive alien deer (known in Australia as ‘feral deer’; hereafter, ‘alien deer’) are some of Australia’s worst emerging pest species. Recently, the Government of South Australia launched a four-year program to reduce the populations of alien fallow deer (Dama dama). The program will focus on coordinating landscape-scale aerial culls and seeks to deliver the most efficient and humane approach to aerial culling. We sourced data from a recent program trialling a new approach to aerial culling that incorporated advanced thermal technology and a second shooter with a shotgun to target fallow deer. We reviewed available video and audio records of 104 deer culled in the program to assess efficiency and welfare outcomes. We collected information on the number of shotgun and rifle rounds fired per animal, time between first shot with a shotgun and apparent death, and pursuit time. We completed field dissections of 20 individuals targeted in the program to assess the lethality of wounds inflicted with shotgun pellets. We also compared program costs and efficiency against published and unpublished data from ten other aerial-culling programs for alien deer in South Australia since 2009. A total of 383 shotgun rounds and 10 rifle rounds were used on 104 fallow deer in the focal program. We documented strong improvements to animal welfare for alien deer targeted with shotguns. The mean (± standard error) time between first shot and apparent death with a shotgun was 11.1 ± 0.7 seconds; mean pursuit time between detection and apparent death was 49.5 ± 3.4 seconds. Pursuit time increased with subsequent deer controlled within a group; the maximum pursuit time for any individual was 159.0 seconds. All autopsied animals had received lethal wounds from shotgun pellets, with 100% receiving lung-penetrating damage and 70% also receiving heart-penetrating damage. While a program that uses a shotgun and rifle combined with a second shooter and thermographer can cost more to mobilise, the outcomes measured in cost deer-1 made it the most cost-effective approach of any program we assessed. Control options that deliver improved animal welfare outcomes and increase efficiency are desirable for managing expanding populations of alien deer in South Australia and elsewhere.

Diet and impacts of non-native fallow deer (Dama dama) on pastoral properties during severe drought

Context There is concern about potential competition between non-native fallow deer (Dama dama) and livestock for food, particularly during times of low rainfall when pasture is scarce. Aims We aimed to estimate the extent to which a high-density fallow deer population (~37 deer per km2) competed with livestock for food during a severe drought on pastoral properties on the Liverpool Plains, New South Wales, Australia. Methods We collected rumen contents from 125 fallow deer shot from helicopters during control operations in June and August 2018, and used microhistology to quantify their diets. We then used the diet data to adjust published estimates of stock unit equivalence from farmed fallow deer. Fallow deer sex and age class abundances and stock unit equivalences were multiplied to estimate the grazing pressure of the fallow deer population pre- and post-control relative to recommended sheep and cattle stocking rates. Finally, we estimated density–impact relationships for fallow deer. Key results Fallow deer diet was dominated by monocots (primarily grasses), but some individuals consumed large amounts of dicots (commonly Eucalyptus). Fallow deer were grazers to intermediate mixed feeders. Fallow deer dry-sheep equivalents (DSEs, based on a 50-kg merino wether) varied from 1.01 (juveniles) to 1.85 (adult females and adult males). Assuming complete diet overlap, the pre-control fallow deer population was equivalent to approximately 60.3 DSEs per km2 and reduced the potential stocking rate of domestic livestock by 50.2%. Discounting the fallow deer DSEs by the amount of browse in the diet resulted in a pre-control population of 45.7 DSEs per km2. The helicopter-based shooting reduced the fallow deer population by 26%, increasing the stocking rate in natural pasture by 22.0% (complete overlap) or 13.8% (discounting for browse). Conclusions When food is limiting, fallow deer at high density can exert strong competitive pressure on livestock, reducing carrying capacity. Browsing, including on Eucalyptus, likely helped fallow deer to persist at high densities during the severe drought of 2018, when properties had destocked. Implications Helicopter-based shooting reduced the competitive effects of fallow deer on livestock in our study area to only a small extent, but more intensive shooting would have led to a greater reduction. The helicopter-based shooting of deer was received positively by landholders at a time of severe stress, suggesting that deer control in agricultural areas can have other important benefits.

A sampling strategy for habitat selection, mapping, and abundance estimation of deer by pellet counts

AbstractWe propose a design‐based strategy to exploit pellet group counts performed within plots of a prefixed size using the clearance count technique with the purposes of analyzing habitat selection, mapping the pellet group presence throughout the study area, and estimating the abundance of deer populations. As is customary in design‐based inference, the strategy is free of model assumptions, and the precision and statistical consistency of the proposed estimators are determined by the probabilistic sampling scheme adopted to locate plots. The unique necessary assumptions are the absence of migratory movements during the survey period, the accurate recording of the number of pellet groups deposited within sample plots between the 2 visits, and a precise approximation of the daily defecation rate of the population. In addition to these assumptions, which can be attained by a suitable design of the survey, the statistical soundness of the strategy rests on the use of tessellation stratified sampling, a stratified sampling scheme that ensures an even distribution of plots throughout the study area. The scheme also allows for the estimation of the standard errors and the construction of confidence intervals without involving any other assumptions. We applied this strategy in summer 2019 in a protected area of a Mediterranean coastal region to estimate the density of a fallow deer (Dama dama) population. We estimated the corresponding standard error considering the uncertainty entailed by the estimation of the daily defecation rate, with the purpose of performing reliable monitoring. The proposed strategy provided precise estimates of deer abundance and is readily implementable in the field, standardized, and easily repeatable over time, thus allowing reliable monitoring and comparisons across time and space, which are fundamental attributes for management of deer populations.

Fallow Deer (Dama dama) Population and Harvest Changes in Europe since the Early 1980s

Fallow deer is one of the most common and widespread cervid species in Europe. To make informed management decisions on any scale, it is essential to have long-term data on the abundance of populations and their harvest. We provide missing information on the changes and status of fallow deer populations in Europe and analyse the relationships between population and harvest changes using a numerical approach. To conduct our analyses, we collected national statistical data on population sizes and hunting bags for all European countries for four periods: 1984, the mid-2000s, mid-2010s, and early 2020s. The fallow deer population increased five-fold from 1984 to the early 2020s and the harvest increased six-fold in the same period. Although the correlations between the population growth rate and harvest growth rate are not strong, removing outliers strengthened the correlation. This indicates that the hunting effort increases as the population increases. Overall, the lack of some data shows that consistent, reliable data collection (monitoring programs) is needed to efficiently manage the increasing fallow deer populations as a renewable natural resource and mitigate the potential negative impacts in a holistic and responsible manner.

Risk-taking neonates do not pay a survival cost in a free-ranging large mammal, the fallow deer (Dama dama).

Recent debate has focused on whether variation in personality primarily reflects variation in resource allocation or resource acquisition of individuals. These two mechanisms predict different relationships between personality and survival. If personality mainly reflects variation in resource allocation, then bold (i.e. risk-taking) individuals are expected to live shorter lives, whereas the opposite pattern is expected with resource acquisition. Here we studied the relationship between neonate personality and early-life survival in 269 juveniles of a population of fallow deer (Dama dama). We found that bolder individuals paid no apparent survival cost. Interestingly, among-individual differences in the physiological response at capture (heart rates, which covary with the behavioural response, i.e. latency to leave) were linked to survival, where individuals with lower heart rates when handled by humans had a higher probability of early-life survival. This suggests that bolder individuals may be of higher state than their shyer counterparts. As the first study linking neonate personality to survival in a free-ranging mammal, we provide novel insights into drivers behind early-life individual variation.

Neonate personality affects early-life resource acquisition in a large social mammal.

Although it is widely acknowledged that animal personality plays a key role in ecology, current debate focuses on the exact role of personality in mediating life-history trade-offs. Crucial for our understanding is the relationship between personality and resource acquisition, which is poorly understood, especially during early stages of development. Here we studied how among-individual differences in behavior develop over the first 6 months of life, and their potential association with resource acquisition in a free-ranging population of fallow deer (Dama dama). We related neonate physiological (heart rate) and behavioral (latency to leave at release) anti-predator responses to human handling to the proportion of time fawns spent scanning during their first summer and autumn of life. We then investigated whether there was a trade-off between scanning time and foraging time in these juveniles, and how it developed over their first 6 months of life. We found that neonates with longer latencies at capture (i.e., risk-takers) spent less time scanning their environment, but that this relationship was only present when fawns were 3-6 months old during autumn, and not when fawns were only 1-2 months old during summer. We also found that time spent scanning was negatively related to time spent foraging and that this relationship became stronger over time, as fawns gradually switch from a nutrition rich (milk) to a nutrition poor (grass) diet. Our results highlight a potential mechanistic pathway in which neonate personality may drive differences in early-life resource acquisition of a large social mammal.

Artificial selection in human-wildlife feeding interactions.

The artificial selection of traits in wildlife populations through hunting and fishing has been well documented. However, despite their rising popularity, the role that artificial selection may play in non‐extractive wildlife activities, for example, recreational feeding activities, remains unknown.If only a subset of a population takes advantage of human‐wildlife feeding interactions, and if this results in different fitness advantages for these individuals, then artificial selection may be at work. We have tested this hypothesis using a wild fallow deer population living at the edge of a capital city as our model population.In contrast to previous assumptions on the randomness of human‐wildlife feeding interactions, we found that a limited non‐random portion of an entire population is continuously engaging with people. We found that the willingness to beg for food from humans exists on a continuum of inter‐individual repeatable behaviour; which ranges from risk‐taking individuals repeatedly seeking and obtaining food, to shyer individuals avoiding human contact and not receiving food at all, despite all individuals having received equal exposure to human presence from birth and coexisting in the same herds together. Bolder individuals obtain significantly more food directly from humans, resulting in early interception of food offerings and preventing other individuals from obtaining supplemental feeding.Those females that beg consistently also produce significantly heavier fawns (300–500 g heavier), which may provide their offspring with a survival advantage. This indicates that these interactions result in disparity in diet and nutrition across the population, impacting associated physiology and reproduction, and may result in artificial selection of the begging behavioural trait.This is the first time that this consistent variation in behaviour and its potential link to artificial selection has been identified in a wildlife population and reveals new potential effects of human‐wildlife feeding interactions in other species across both terrestrial and aquatic habitats.

Reducing risky interactions: Identifying barriers to the successful management of human–wildlife conflict in an urban parkland

Abstract Managing activities that result in human–wildlife conflict is a challenging goal for modern scientists and managers. In recent years, the self‐motivated feeding of wildlife by humans has garnered popularity but with consequent risks for the health and safety of both parties. This has resulted in calls for management in areas of high contact, for example, parklands. Traditional controls are typically utilised (i.e. signage, patrols), yet their success is varied, leading to a rise in research aiming to improve them. This research has primarily focused on language and design, with little attention paid to the role that audience type (i.e. international tourists vs. locals/residents) may play in their success. Proportions in audience type present can vary both between parks and spatially within a single park, however, controls are usually applied homogeneously with no consideration for how response may vary between these groups. Here, we performed a robust before–after study across two summers using a wild fallow deer population in a public park that are commonly fed by visitors as our model. We deployed controls, following best practice as outlined by the literature, and tested their overall effectiveness. We then identified key areas with differences in visitor type proportions and tested for variation in success between them. We found that the numbers of visitors feeding the deer significantly decreased overall after the introduction of controls, although interactions were not eliminated entirely. We discovered that the effectiveness of these controls varied with changes in visitor type, with the most positive effects occurring in areas with more international tourists and no significant effect occurring in areas dominated by resident visitors. Notably, of the food offerings remaining, the proportion of foods that could be perceived as ‘nutritionally beneficial’ increased in both sites, marking overall changes in the behaviours of even those visitors who refused to stop feeding. These findings highlight the importance of target audience research in human–wildlife conflict management. We recommend that authorities aiming to reduce these interactions perform systematic surveys to identify the audience type present and cater controls accordingly to maximise their success. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Sex-Related Differences in UT-B Urea Transporter Abundance in Fallow Deer Rumen.

Rumen studies have focused almost exclusively on livestock species under strictly regimented diets. This means that the ruminal condition of free-living and free-feeding wildlife remains practically unstudied. Urea nitrogen salvaging, a process by which urea is passed into the rumen, to both provide a valuable source of nitrogen for bacterial growth and to buffer the potentially harmful acidic effects of bacterial short chain fatty acids, has remained unexplored in wild ruminants, such as deer. UT-B2 transporters are the key proteins reported to facilitate the transepithelial ruminal urea transport. In this study, we investigate the expression, abundance and localisation of urea transporters in the rumen of a semi-wild fallow deer (Dama dama) population. Physical measurements confirmed that males had larger rumen than females, while adults had longer papillae than juveniles. Initial RT-PCR experiments confirmed the expression of UT-B2, while immunolocalisation studies revealed that strong UT-B staining was present in the stratum basale of deer rumen. Western blotting analysis demonstrated that a 50 kDa UT-B2 protein was significantly more abundant in adult females compared to adult males. This study confirms the presence of UT-B2 urea transporters in deer rumen and suggests that sex-related differences occur, bringing new insight into our understanding of rumen physiology.

Effectiveness and costs of helicopter-based shooting of deer

Context Helicopter-based shooting has been widely used to harvest deer or control overabundant populations in Australasia, but the effectiveness and cost of this method as a deer control tool has seldom been evaluated. Aims We evaluated the effectiveness and costs of helicopter-based shooting of fallow deer (Dama dama) and chital deer (Axis axis) in eastern Australia by quantifying (1) reductions in density, (2) the relationship between numbers killed per hour and deer density (i.e. the functional response), (3) the costs of control and (4) the effort–outcome and cost–outcome relationships. Methods We evaluated the costs and effectiveness of 12 aerial shooting operations aiming to reduce fallow deer (n = 8) or chital deer (n = 4) population densities at nine sites in eastern Australia. Sites were characterised by fragmented woodland, and all but one operation aimed to reduce grazing competition with livestock. We used pre-control population density estimates and operational monitoring data to estimate the costs and outcomes of each operation. We combined data from all operations to estimate the relationship between shooting effort and population reduction, as well as costs associated with different levels of effort. Key results Population reductions for operations ranged from 5% to 75% for fallow deer, and from 48% to 88% for chital deer. The greatest population reductions occurred when effort per unit area was greatest, and the largest reductions in deer density occurred when shooting was conducted in consecutive years. The functional response of hourly kills to deer density was best described by a modified Ivlev model, with the asymptotic kill rate estimated to be 50 deer per hour. There was no support for the existence of a prey refuge, that is, a threshold population density below which no deer could be shot. Helicopter charter was the primary cost of helicopter-based shooting programs, followed by labour; firearm and ammunition costs were relatively minor. Conclusions Helicopter-based shooting can rapidly reduce deer populations over large geographic areas, but the magnitude of the reduction depends on the effort (hours of shooting) per deer per km2. Implications Aerial shooting operations should include a pre-control population survey so that (1) measurable objectives can be established, (2) the likely level of effort and cost required for objectives to be met can be estimated and planned for, and (3) the realised population reduction can be estimated.

Modeling habitat suitability and utilization of the last surviving populations of fallow deer (Dama dama Linnaeus, 1758)

Modeling habitat suitability and utilization of the last surviving populations of fallow deer (Dama dama Linnaeus, 1758)