Punjabi Population Research Articles

Hypertension and global DNA methylation: a population-based study in rural, Punjab, India

Hypertension is a significant public health concern and a modifiable risk factor for increased mortality worldwide. It is reported to be influenced by gene-environment interactions and micronutrient intake. This study aims to understand the relationship between global DNA methylation levels and hypertension, independently and in the context of micronutrient status, among rural population in Punjab, India. A total of 2300 individuals, aged 30–75 years, (54.9% females) were screened for blood pressure. Of 2300 screened individuals, 900 (age sex matched 450 cases and 450 controls of hypertension) individuals were selected to examine the relationship between hypertension, global DNA methylation (5mC), and biochemicals (Folate, Vitamin B12, and Homocysteine). Folate, vitamin B12, and homocysteine levels were estimated using chemiluminescence technique. The ELISA-based colorimetric technique was used for performing peripheral blood leucocyte (PBL) global DNA methylation (5mC). Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 22.0. Hypertensives were found to have significantly lower levels of global DNA methylation than normotensives (0.65 vs. 0.72 respectively; p-value = 0.01*). Individuals in the 1st quartile of 5mC were at significantly (OR: 1.671; 95% CI: 1.206–2.315; p-value = 0.01*) increased risk for hypertension in comparison to those in the 4th quartile (reference). Further hypertensives on medication with controlled blood pressure (BP) were significantly hypermethylated as compared to hypertensives on medication with uncontrolled BP (0.70 vs. 0.62 respectively; p-value = 0.04*). Folate appeared to mediate global DNA methylation among hypertensives on medication-controlled BP. Further hypertension driven hypomethylation hints towards accelerated biological aging among younger hypertensives. Hypertension may be associated with Global DNA hypomethylation in the studied rural population of Punjab, India. Folate sufficiency may prove to be an aid in improving the methylation levels among the cases of hypertension who were on medication and had controlled BP.

Genetic Diversity and Forensic Utility of X-STR Loci in Punjabi and Kashmiri Populations: Insights into Population Structure and Ancestry

Background: X-chromosomal short tandem repeats (X-STRs) are crucial in forensic applications, particularly in complex kinship cases, and play an important role in population genetics. However, there is limited data on X-STR variation in Pakistani populations, especially among ethnic groups like Kashmiri and Punjabi. Methodology: This study investigates the forensic and genetic properties of 12 X-STRs from the Investigator Argus X-12 Kit (QIAGEN, Hilden, Germany) in 125 families (75 Kashmiri, 50 Punjabi) from Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab, Pakistan. Results: In both populations, a total of 222 alleles were identified across the 12 X-STR loci (Punjabi 171 alleles, Kashmiri 161 alleles), with allele frequencies ranging from 0.0056 to 0.3033. DXS10148 was the most polymorphic locus with 28 alleles, while DXS7132 was the least polymorphic with 9 alleles. Most loci were in linkage equilibrium, except for the DXS10135/DXS10148 pair in males, with no loci exhibiting significant linkage disequilibrium in females. The combined power of discrimination was 0.999 999 9977 for Kashmiri males, 0.999 999 999 999 9746 for Kashmiri females, and 0.999 999 999 999 9781 for Punjabi females. In Kashmiri males, 34, 31, 28, and 32 haplotypes were observed across the four linkage groups (LG1, LG2, LG3, and LG4), though these groups did not form stable haplotypes, as indicated by Linkage Equilibrium within and significant Linkage Disequilibrium between groups. Conclusions: Genetic structure analysis using Principal Component Analysis and STRUCTURE revealed distinct clustering patterns for the Kashmiri and Punjabi populations, indicating unique genetic backgrounds and ancestry influences, particularly distinguishing them from East Asian populations. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of X-STR variation in Punjabi and Kashmiri populations, offering valuable insights for forensic and population genetic studies.

Genetic Variation in the Invaded Population of the Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), in India

The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, an invasive, polyphagous pest, causes significant damage to corn. The majority of insects rely on a broad range of digestive enzymes and an intricate detoxifying mechanism to consume chemically diverse host plants. The genetic variation in S. frugiperda was analyzed using cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) and triose phosphate isomerase (Tpi). In addition, a new attempt was made to determine the variation with respect to two detoxifying genes, viz., carboxylesterase and glutathione S-transferase. The highest genetic variation (3.03%) was found between the S. frugiperda populations of Tirupati and Delhi with respect to the Tpi gene and between the populations of Punjab and Hosur regarding COI (3.30%). The results for various genes revealed that populations of the fall armyworm were homogeneous, showing low genetic distance using COI, ranging from 0.40 to 3.30%, and, using Tpi, ranging from 0.43 to 3.03%. The variation in carboxylesterase and glutathione S-transferase ranged from 0.04 to 0.15% and from 0.01 to 0.02, respectively. Amino acid sequences were also produced using DNA sequences from several fall armyworm populations. Populations in Tirupati, Solapur, and Hyderabad shared 98.7% of their sequence with that in Delhi. Fall armyworm amino acid sequences showed 79.7 to 82.0% identity with S. exigua and 69.6 to 73.0% identity with S. litura. Our study provides vital information for understanding the genetic variation in the fall armyworm following its invasion of India.

Age estimation from endochondral ossification pattern of thyroid cartilage in the population of Punjab

Objective: The present study aims at studying the ossification of thyroid cartilage and to compare it with age of the individual. Methods: The study was conducted in 300 samples of thyroid cartilage collected during autopsy in the department of Forensic medicine in a tertiary care hospital. Each thyroid cartilage is divided in to thirteen anatomical area and ossification in each defined area was studied through gross and cut section features and classified as ossified and not ossified areas. The samples were grouped in to seven groups of age and ossification features were compared between the age groups. Results: On analysing the ossification pattern of thyroid cartilage in thirteen defined anatomical areas and comparing it with the age, a peculiar sequence of ossification was noted, and it was also observed that frequency of ossification increases significantly with increasing age groups. Conclusion: Ossification of thyroid cartilage helps in establishing the age of individual and it can be categorised to an age group of ten years.

The PARK2_e01(-697) Polymorphism does not Associate with Susceptibil-ity to Typhoid in Punjabi Population, Pakistan: A Case Control Study.

SNP based association studies have revolutionized the field of biomed-icines. Enteric fever is a systemic disease with etiologic agents Salmonella enterica serovar typhi and paratyphi. It is a serious health issue worldwide and presents wide variations in incidence, rates, and severity. Previous investigations have revealed that genetic variations may lead to sus-ceptibility to typhoid fever. A current study was performed to investigate the potential association of PARK2_e01(-697) polymorphism with the susceptibility to typhoid in the Punjabi population. For this case-control study, blood samples obtained from typhoid patients with positive Typhidot or blood culture test (n=72) and healthy controls (n=73) were processed for DNA ex-traction. The polymorphism PARK2_e01(-697) analysis was carried out by using PCR and RFLP. No allelic association was found between PARK2_e01(-697) and susceptibility to ty-phoid fever in the understudy population. This case control study is the demonstration of the non-association of PARK2_e01(-697) with typhoid in the Pakistani population. Future research, using a larger population size, will help to elucidate the role of PARK2_e01(-697) polymorphism in typhoid pathogenesis.

A comprehensive analysis of contraceptive safety: Implications for gynecological health and education levels

The use of contraceptives is essential for lowering the net reproduction rate and stabilizing population growth. Developing countries are characterized by high birth rates and rapid population growth. With lower contraceptive usage rates among eligible couples and resistance towards family planning methods, achieving population stabilization seems challenging. Therefore, this study aims to study the effects of various contraceptive methods on gynecological health and their safety profiles, The present observational study, was conducted in Department Obstetrics and Gynaecology at tertiary health care centre, Panjab, India. A total of 450 women were evaluated with the help of a pre-designed and pre-tested questionnaire to address knowledge, awareness, and perception of contraception among the rural and urban population in Punjab. The data were collected and analysed.All the participants were known to the traditional contraception and only few were aware about the modern contraception. Participants preferred tubal ligation (43.78%) over vasectomy (75.78%) and rarely considered hysterectomy (1.11%). Most knew about male condoms (99.56%) but fewer about female condoms (0.44%). Among the participants, 59.78% were aware of contraception side effects. Regarding condom use, opinions were divided, with 48.67% in favor and 51.33% against. Educated individuals were aware of contraception but not its major side effects. Therefore, we suggest investigating social, cultural, and knowledge aspects to improve understanding.

COPD RISK IN PAKISTANI PUNJABI POPULATION: ROLE OF GATM, PSMA4, AND CHRNA5-A3-B4 GENE VARIANTS

Background: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a complex, multifactorial and polygenic disease concerning genetic and environmental factors. Objectives: The selected single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within or between potential candidate genes were studied to find the association with the onset of COPD disease in the Punjabi population of Pakistan. Methods: 254 COPD patients and 219 control subjects were enrolled for this case-control study. After a literature review and with the help of bioinformatics tools, risk-associated deleterious SNPs residing within or among genes GATM, PSMA4, CHRNA3, CHRNA5, and CHRNB4 were selected to evaluate their association with COPD. Following the mini-sequencing technique, the disease’s association analysis was done using PLINK v1.9 and SHEsis Plus. Results: The mean age of cases was 48.9 ± 9.04 years (N=254), comprising 55.1% males and 44.9% females with 36.6% positive family history of COPD. ‘C’ alleles for rs200551904, rs199547652 and rs1288775 are associated with COPD (p-value 9.70x10-9, 1.14x10-5 and 7.45x10-4 respectively), whereas the ‘CC’ genotype of rs8053 seems to be a protective factor for the disease. The variants rs1288775 and rs199547652 remained associated even with adjusting results for smoking exposure (p-value 0.002 and 1.22 x10-6, respectively). Haplotype analysis for rs1145086, rs1288775, rs8053, rs77994111, rs16969968, rs200551904, rs199547652, rs19968256, and rs181037724 shows that four of the haplotypes H4, H9, H10 and H14, (GATAGGACC; CACAAGACC; CATAGGACC; GACAAGACC respectively), are associated with the disease, while two haplotypes, H1 and H11 (CACAGGCCC and CGCAGGACC respectively), are protective factors against the disease. Conclusion: The association of COPD with chromosome 15 variants in the Punjabi population is reported in this study.

GENETIC POLYMORPHISMS IN RAD51, RAD52 AND RAD54 GENES OF HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION REPAIR PATHWAY IN BREAST CANCER: A CASE-CONTROL STUDY FROM PUNJAB

A case-control study was conducted on 600 subjects (300 cases and 300 controls) to understand the association of genetic polymorphisms of RAD51 (rs1801320, rs1801321, rs121917739, rs2619681), RAD52 (rs4987207, rs4987208) and RAD54 (rs2295466) genes in breast cancer patients and controls in population of Punjab. Genotyping of the selected SNPs of RAD51 and RAD52 gene was done by PCR-RFLP, whereas ARMS-PCR was used for RAD54 gene polymorphism. Our study identified significant associations between specific SNPs in the RAD51 and RAD52 genes and breast cancer risk. Notably, three RAD51 SNPs (rs1801320, rs1801321, and rs121917739) and one RAD52 SNP (rs4987208) showed significant genotype frequency differences between cases and controls. Genetic model analysis revealed that minor alleles of four RAD51 SNPs (rs1801320, rs1801321, rs121917739, and rs2619681) and two RAD52 SNPs (rs4987207 and rs4987208) were linked to increased breast cancer risk. Haplotype analysis further supported these findings, with 10 RAD51 haplotypes and two RAD52 haplotypes (G-G and T-G) significantly associated with higher breast cancer risk. Additionally, the GT + TT genotype of RAD52 rs4987207 was associated with lower odds of metastasis, while the TG + GG genotype of rs4987208 was linked to lymph node involvement and higher tumor grade.

Prevalence of Association of Dietary Habits with Chronic Energy Deficiency in Ethnic Adult Punjabi Population

Background: Food is a basic thing without which, life is impossible. Without proper food, body will not thrive to its optimum potential and Chronic Energy Deficiency (CED) is the state, where there is a lack of food intake over a prolonged period of time. Aims & Objectives: To find the association of dietary habits with CED in ethnic Punjabi population. Methodology: The study was a cross-sectional study using simple random sampling technique. Taking the prevalence of CED as 30% in India, the sample size came out to be 336 but, 400 subjects were selected equally from rural and urban areas for convenience. Results: Subjects having lesser calorie intake than RDA, developed CED more 62(82.9%) than meeting RDA 13(17.1%). Subjects who skipped meals had higher CED rates. Pure vegetarians had higher rates of CED 71(93.4%) than non-vegetarians 5(6.6%). People consuming milk or milk products more than once daily developed lesser CED 1(1.3%) than those taking once daily 15(19.7%) and ones taking only once a week 60(79.0%). Conclusion: According to the study, persons with adequate calorie intake, who do not skip meals, take some kind of non-vegetarian food, and consume milk on daily basis have lesser tendency to develop CED.

Shining a Spotlight on Stigma: Exploring Its Impact on Oral Health-Seeking Behaviours Through the Lenses of Patients and Caregivers.

Introduction The unique nature of a lack of good oral health, coupled with the lack of discussion and recognition surrounding the associated stigma, highlights it as a distinct issue. This stigma causes discomfort, devalues individuals, and necessitates urgent care and intervention. In Pakistan, a variety of reasons, including cultural beliefs, socioeconomic gaps, and poor access to dental care services, tend to exacerbate the stigma that is associated with dental care. This study aimed to determine the impact of stigma on oral health-seeking behaviours amongst the population of South Punjab in Pakistan. Methodology The study employed a qualitative design with a phenomenological approach, and the data collection was preceded by the administration of semi-structured interview guides and discussion guides to the patients and the consultant group, respectively. The targeted population was composed of patients who had reported stigmatization and a focus group of 10 dental consultants from various specialisations in dentistry. Data was collected until saturation from 16 patients who were recruited through the purposive convenience sampling technique. Results The study identified three themes, including perceived stigmaimpact on health-seeking behaviours and coping mechanisms; 10 subthemes emerged. Results showed social attitudes and unhealthy perceptions of oral conditions that lead to shame, loss of self-esteem, and lack of confidence among affected individuals. Behavioural reactions like mockery and discrimination further made it difficult for the participants who sought dental care and treatment. The study highlighted that stigma resulted in the avoidance of dental care, deterioration of oral health, and a tendency towards self-medication. People also used coping strategies such as hiding dental issues by avoiding social gatherings and seeking help from close friends to manage oral health stigma. Dental consultants had the strong opinion that care quality could be enhanced by utilising compassionate communication and patient education campaigns. Conclusions The experiences of patients and consultants related to dental stigmahighlighted the complex interplay of sociocultural norms and healthcare practices. The study demonstrated that perceived stigmaimpacted the health-seeking behaviours of patients. Social support and education about oral health helped patients overcome this stigma. The study revealed that patients avoided dental treatments due to stigmatised behaviour from health professionals, a lack of affordability, and a feeling of shame to show and discuss the condition of their teeth, which got even worse due to self-remedy. The experiences of patients and consultants highlighted the need for increased advocacy, educational campaigns, and policies that can reduce inequalities in oral health and improve health equity. The study recommends specific intervention strategies and policy formulation to address oral health inequalities and contribute to advancing oral health equity in Pakistan.

Deep sequencing of Escherichia coli exposes colonisation diversity and impact of antibiotics in Punjab, Pakistan

Multi-drug resistant (MDR) E. coli constitute a major public health burden globally, reaching the highest prevalence in the global south yet frequently flowing with travellers to other regions. However, our comprehension of the entire genetic diversity of E. coli colonising local populations remains limited. We quantified this diversity, its associated antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and assessed the impact of antibiotic use by recruiting 494 outpatients and 423 community dwellers in the Punjab province, Pakistan. Rectal swab and stool samples were cultured on CLED agar and DNA extracted from plate sweeps was sequenced en masse to capture both the genetic and AMR diversity of E. coli. We assembled 5,247 E. coli genomes from 1,411 samples, displaying marked genetic diversity in gut colonisation. Compared with high income countries, the Punjabi population generally showed a markedly different distribution of genetic lineages and AMR determinants, while use of antibiotics elevated the prevalence of well-known globally circulating MDR clinical strains. These findings implicate that longitudinal multi-regional genomics-based surveillance of both colonisation and infections is a prerequisite for developing mechanistic understanding of the interplay between ecology and evolution in the maintenance and dissemination of (MDR) E. coli.

Cultural Adaptation and Validation of the Punjabi Version of EPIC.

With earlier prostate cancer (PCa) diagnosis and increased survivorship, post-treatment quality of life (QoL) has become increasingly important. The Expanded Prostate Cancer Index Composite (EPIC) is a widely adopted QoL instrument for PCa. We aimed to create a Punjabi version of EPIC to further research in the Punjabi-speaking population. A prototype of the Punjabi version of EPIC was created by forward-backward translations and revision. After concluding the cultural adaptation phase by interviewing 15 participants, a pilot version was created. Validation of the pilot version was performed by having 72 participants complete the Punjabi EPIC and another commonly used QoL instrument, the EORTC QLQ-c30, twice within a 4-week period. Test retest reliability (Pearson's correlations and difference distribution) and internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) were measured using SAS version 9.4. Modifications were needed for the prototype Punjabi version after forward-backward translations. Cultural adaptation has highlighted a few issues including syntax and terminology. Test-retest reliability of the Urinary, Bowel, Sexual and Hormone domains were 0.88, 0.91, 0.91, and 0.95, respectively, and subscale correlations ranged from 0.75 to 0.93. Internal consistency for domains and subscales was good except for Sexual Domain. Performance of EPIC is comparable, and in some cases, slightly better than validated Punjabi version of EORTC QLQ-C30. The EPIC questionnaire was successfully translated into Punjabi and was culturally adapted. The resultant Punjabi version has high reliability and validity and will be an important tool for QoL research in the Punjabi population. EPIC was successfully translated, culturally adapted, and validated with high reliability and validity into Punjabi. It will be a valuable QoL tool for physicians in clinical and research settings, and for patients in decision-making.

Lipoprotein Oxidation, Genetic Expression and Polymorphism of Apo A and B Gene in Patients with Coronary Artery Disease in A Pakistani Punjabi Population

Oxidative alterations of lipoproteins and numerous polymorphism locations in the apolipoprotein A1 (APOA1) and B (APOB) genes have been identified as risk factors for cardiovascular events. The aim of the study was to investigate the gene expression and the role of APOA and B gene polymorphisms in coronary artery disease (CAD) and their relationship with lipid profiles, oxidized High Density Lipoprotein (oxHDL), and oxidized Low Density Lipoprotein (oxLDL) in the Punjabi Pakistani population. A total of 200 subjects were included, of which 135 were diagnosed as having CAD and 65 were not. The lipid profile, oxHDL, and oxLDL were measured through the calorimetric method and ELISA, respectively. Quantitative variables represented by mean ± SD for normally distributed data. Gene expression was done on cDNA through Real-time PCR. Genotyping of APOA1 (rs670, rs5069) and APOB (rs693, rs11279109) were performed by PCR-RFLP (Polymerase Chain Reaction-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism), and gel electrophoresis was used for band visualization. Our findings showed that the oxHDL, oxLDL, APOA, B gene expression and Del genotype of APOB rs11279109 was significantly increased in CAD cases. In addition, significant high levels of oxHDL, oxLDL, serum cholesterol, VLDL, TG, and cholesterol/HDL ratio has been shown to be associated with CAD. APOB (rs11279109) has a significant impact on dyslipidemia and exhibit a higher risk of CAD (OR=3.97) while, APOB (rs693), APOA1 (rs670), (rs5069) possesses a lower risk of CAD in the population. Hence, levels of oxHDL and oxLDL as well as ApoA1 and APOB genotyping could be useful in identifying individuals who are at risk of CAD.

A comparative study on knowledge, awareness and perception of contraception among rural and urban population in Punjab

In developing countries like India, a lack of awareness about contraceptive methods often leads to misconceptions, limited choices, and improper family planning. This knowledge gap not only disrupts maternal and child health complications but also disrupts the economy of society and the nation. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the knowledge, awareness and perception of contraception among the rural and urban population in Punjab.This observational study conducted in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at a tertiary health care centre, in Punjab, India. A total of 500 women were evaluated with the help of a pre-designed questionnaire to address knowledge, awareness, and perception of contraception among the rural and urban population in Punjab. The statistical analysis was performed by using SPSS Windows, version 28. In the present study, a total of 492 participants were included, of whom 387 were from rural areas and 105 were from urban areas. This study revealed, 100% of participants were aware of contraception. In terms of the source of information, social circles were identified as the primary channel (46.34%), followed by the media (33.94%), health workers (16.87%), and educational institutes (2.85%).This study highlights contraceptive methods, including condoms, oral contraceptives, and intrauterine devices (IUDs), as primary choices. Therefore, it's important to bridge the gap between awareness and action. Hence, this study, advocate the awareness program on interventions to ensure everyone can access effective family planning resources without barriers.

Decreased mRNA expression of NR1H3 and ABCA1 in pulmonary tuberculosis patients from population of Punjab, India.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) is the causative organism of tuberculosis. Cholesterol is a crucial carbon source required for the survival of MTB in host cells. Transcription factor NR1H3 along with its important target genes ABCA1 and ApoE play important role in removal of extra cholesterol from cells. Changes in the gene expression of NR1H3, ABCA1 and ApoE can affect cholesterol homeostasis and thus the survival of MTB in host cells.Therefore, the present study was designed to analyze the mRNA expression of NR1H3, ABCA1 and ApoE in pulmonary TB (PTB) patients from the population of Punjab, India. In this study, mRNA expression of the transcription factor NR1H3 and its target genes ABCA1 and ApoE was analyzed in 89 subjects, including 41 PTB patients and 48 healthy controls (HCs) by real-time quantitative PCR. It was found that the mRNA expression of both NR1H3 and ABCA1 genes was significantly lower in TB patients than in HCs (p < 0.001). Even after sex-wise stratification of the subjects, mRNA expression of NR1H3 and ABCA1 was found to be down-regulated in both male and female TB patients. No significant difference was observed in expression of ApoE (p = 0.98). The present study found that the mRNA expression of NR1H3 and ABCA1 is down-regulated in TB patients from Punjab state of India.

Assessment of Sustainable Development Goals and Population in Punjab

Assessment of Sustainable Development Goals and Population in Punjab

Prevalence of Chronic Energy Deficiency and its Socio-Demographic Correlates among Ethnic Adult Population of Punjab, India

Introduction: Chronic Energy Deficiency is a condition characterized by a long-term insufficient intake of calories and/or nutrients relative to a person’s energy expenditure, leading to a negative energy balance. It is typically associated with inadequate nutrition and can result in various health issues.Objectives: 1) To find out prevalence of CED in ethnic Punjabi population. 2) To determine the sociodemographic factors affecting CED the study subjects.Materials &amp; Methods: The study was a cross sectional study using simple random sampling technique. Taking the prevalence of CED as 30%, sample size came out to be 336, but for ease of convenience, 400 subjects were selected.Results: The study subjects comprised of 183 males and 217 females and there were 24 cases of CED in males and 52 in females. Maximum cases of CED were found in the age group of 20-29 years, in lower castes and low-income groups and in illiterates.Conclusion: According to this study, maximum number of CED was found in the age group of 20-29 years.Prevalence was significantly higher in females than males and its was maximum in lower castes at 35.8%. In lower income group and in the illiterate group, it was maximum and the results were statistically significant.

Association of a single-nucleotide polymorphism in C12orf43 region with the risk of coronary artery disease.

The genetics of organisms play a vital role in the development of coronary artery disease (CAD), with its heritability estimated at approximately 50-60%. For this purpose, we examined the relationship between CAD risk and C12orf43/rs2258287 polymorphisms in the Pakistani population. In this study based on the genetic approach to dyslipidemia, a total of 200 subjects were included from the southern Punjab. The biochemical analysis of parameters (total cholesterol, triglycerides, blood glucose, high-density lipoprotein, and low-density lipoprotein) was carried out along with molecular analysis using an ARMS-PCR-based assay for single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) C12orf43/rs2258287 to identify the genotype. Genotypes showed a substantial correlation with both family history and metabolic markers. The cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), triglycerides and blood glucose levels were higher while the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) level was lower significantly (p<0.05) in cases than in controls. Age, pulse rate, diabetes, physical activity, smoking, family history, and dietary habits were also significantly associated (p<0.05) with CAD individuals. The SNP C12orf43/rs2258287 also showed an association with CAD in the population of southern Punjab. Based upon this study, it could be concluded that CAD is characterized by an unfavorable lipid profile in association with SNP C12orf43/rs2258287.

Legitimacy of the courts: evidence from a survey in Punjab, Pakistan

ABSTRACT Procedural justice is generally considered a primary indicator by which legal authorities, such as police and courts, establish legitimacy. However, considering the context of the criminal justice system in Pakistan, this paper examines whether the perceptions of accurate verdicts, along with perceptions of procedural justice, are associated with the perceptions of legitimacy of the courts. The data for this cross-sectional study come from an online survey of the general population in Punjab, Pakistan. The results of the multiple regression models affirm the study hypotheses. The findings suggest that people are judgemental; they not only evaluate whether the authorities (judges) act procedurally in just ways during encounters with the public but also retrospectively keep a record of previous memories regarding court verdicts. These memories shape their perceptions of whether the authorities are legitimate.

Exploring the Coinfection and Genetic Diversity of Multiple Tick-Borne Pathogens in Livestock Population of Punjab, Pakistan

Tick-borne diseases affecting domestic animals and humans have increased globally in recent years. Pakistan, in particular, faces a significant economic threat from ticks, where two specific species, Rhipicephalus microplus and Hyalomma anatolicum, act as vectors for various pathogens such as piroplasma, Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, and Rickettsia that pose a significant burden on livestock production in the country. To better understand the risk that tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) pose to livestock in Pakistan, we conducted a cross-sectional study of the occurrence, diversity, and coinfection of these pathogens in small and large ruminants owned by small farms as well as in ticks collected from these animals. We collected blood samples from 224 cattle, 224 buffalo, 69 goats, and 56 sheep, gathered from 112 farms located in seven districts of Punjab, one of Pakistan’s largest province. In addition, we collected a total of 476 ticks attached to these animals. Based on the identification of tick species through morphology and sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) gene, we confirmed that the most commonly collected tick species were Rh. microplus (38.65% of all individuals), H. anatolicum (31.93%), and Rh. decoloratus (8.40%). Notable pathogens detected in the collected ticks included Theileria annulata (18.4% prevalence), Anaplasma ovis (15.79%), A. centrale (13.16%), and Rickettsia slovaca (13.16%). In blood samples, the most frequently detected pathogens were T. annulata (n = 8), Babesia bovis (n = 7), A. centrale (n = 6), and B. bigemina (n = 5). In some cases, both cattle and buffaloes were found to be coinfected with B. bovis, T. annulata, and A. centrale. These findings provide valuable insights into the circulation of TBPs in livestock and highlight the need for further research on the epidemiological risk that these pathogens pose to ruminants in Pakistan.