Poorer Working Memory Performance Research Articles

Neighborhood disadvantage is associated with working memory and hippocampal volumes among older adults

ABSTRACT It is not well understood how neighborhood disadvantage is associated with specific domains of cognitive function and underlying brain health within older adults. Thus, the objective was to examine associations between neighborhood disadvantage, brain health, and cognitive performance, and examine whether associations were more pronounced among women. The study included 136 older adults who underwent cognitive testing and MRI. Neighborhood disadvantage was characterized using the Area Deprivation Index (ADI). Descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and multiple regressions were run. Multiple regressions, adjusted for age, sex, education, and depression, showed that higher ADI state rankings (greater disadvantage) were associated with poorer working memory performance (p < .01) and lower hippocampal volumes (p < .01), but not total, frontal, and white matter lesion volumes, nor visual and verbal memory performance. There were no significant sex interactions. Findings suggest that greater neighborhood disadvantage may play a role in working memory and underlying brain structure.

Neurocognition and brain functional connectivity in a non-clinical population-based sample with psychotic experiences

We characterized the neurocognitive profile of communed-based individuals and unaffected siblings of patients with psychosis from Brazil reporting psychotic experiences (PEs). We also analyzed associations between PEs and the intra and inter-functional connectivity (FC) in the Default Mode Network (DMN), the Fronto-Parietal Network (FPN) and the Salience Network (SN) measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging. The combined sample of communed-based individuals and unaffected siblings of patients with psychosis comprised 417 (neurocognition) and 85 (FC) volunteers who were divided as having low (<75th percentile) and high (≥75th percentile) PEs (positive, negative, and depressive dimensions) assessed by the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences. The neurocognitive profile and the estimated current brief intellectual quotient (IQ) were assessed using the digit symbol (processing speed), arithmetic (working memory), block design (visual learning) and information (verbal learning) subtests of Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-third edition. Logistic regression models were performed for neurocognitive analysis. For neuroimaging, we used the CONN toolbox to assess FC between the specified regions, and ROI-to-ROI analysis. In the combined sample, high PEs (all dimensions) were related to lower processing speed performance. High negative PEs were related to poor visual learning performance and lower IQ, while high depressive PEs were associated with poor working memory performance. Those with high negative PEs presented FPN hypoconnectivity between the right and left lateral prefrontal cortex. There were no associations between PEs and the DMN and SN FC. Brazilian individuals with high PEs showed neurocognitive impairments like those living in wealthier countries. Hypoconnectivity in the FPN in a community sample with high PEs is coherent with the hypothesis of functional dysconnectivity in schizophrenia.

Large-scale animal model study uncovers altered brain pH and lactate levels as a transdiagnostic endophenotype of neuropsychiatric disorders involving cognitive impairment.

Increased levels of lactate, an end-product of glycolysis, have been proposed as a potential surrogate marker for metabolic changes during neuronal excitation. These changes in lactate levels can result in decreased brain pH, which has been implicated in patients with various neuropsychiatric disorders. We previously demonstrated that such alterations are commonly observed in five mouse models of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism, suggesting a shared endophenotype among these disorders rather than mere artifacts due to medications or agonal state. However, there is still limited research on this phenomenon in animal models, leaving its generality across other disease animal models uncertain. Moreover, the association between changes in brain lactate levels and specific behavioral abnormalities remains unclear. To address these gaps, the International Brain pH Project Consortium investigated brain pH and lactate levels in 109 strains/conditions of 2294 animals with genetic and other experimental manipulations relevant to neuropsychiatric disorders. Systematic analysis revealed that decreased brain pH and increased lactate levels were common features observed in multiple models of depression, epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, and some additional schizophrenia models. While certain autism models also exhibited decreased pH and increased lactate levels, others showed the opposite pattern, potentially reflecting subpopulations within the autism spectrum. Furthermore, utilizing large-scale behavioral test battery, a multivariate cross-validated prediction analysis demonstrated that poor working memory performance was predominantly associated with increased brain lactate levels. Importantly, this association was confirmed in an independent cohort of animal models. Collectively, these findings suggest that altered brain pH and lactate levels, which could be attributed to dysregulated excitation/inhibition balance, may serve as transdiagnostic endophenotypes of debilitating neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by cognitive impairment, irrespective of their beneficial or detrimental nature.

Large-scale animal model study uncovers altered brain pH and lactate levels as a transdiagnostic endophenotype of neuropsychiatric disorders involving cognitive impairment

Increased levels of lactate, an end-product of glycolysis, have been proposed as a potential surrogate marker for metabolic changes during neuronal excitation. These changes in lactate levels can result in decreased brain pH, which has been implicated in patients with various neuropsychiatric disorders. We previously demonstrated that such alterations are commonly observed in five mouse models of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism, suggesting a shared endophenotype among these disorders rather than mere artifacts due to medications or agonal state. However, there is still limited research on this phenomenon in animal models, leaving its generality across other disease animal models uncertain. Moreover, the association between changes in brain lactate levels and specific behavioral abnormalities remains unclear. To address these gaps, the International Brain pH Project Consortium investigated brain pH and lactate levels in 109 strains/conditions of 2294 animals with genetic and other experimental manipulations relevant to neuropsychiatric disorders. Systematic analysis revealed that decreased brain pH and increased lactate levels were common features observed in multiple models of depression, epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, and some additional schizophrenia models. While certain autism models also exhibited decreased pH and increased lactate levels, others showed the opposite pattern, potentially reflecting subpopulations within the autism spectrum. Furthermore, utilizing large-scale behavioral test battery, a multivariate cross-validated prediction analysis demonstrated that poor working memory performance was predominantly associated with increased brain lactate levels. Importantly, this association was confirmed in an independent cohort of animal models. Collectively, these findings suggest that altered brain pH and lactate levels, which could be attributed to dysregulated excitation/inhibition balance, may serve as transdiagnostic endophenotypes of debilitating neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by cognitive impairment, irrespective of their beneficial or detrimental nature.

Stunting in infancy is associated with atypical activation of working memory and attention networks

Stunting is associated with poor long-term cognitive, academic and economic outcomes, yet the mechanisms through which stunting impacts cognition in early development remain unknown. In a first-ever neuroimaging study conducted on infants from rural India, we demonstrate that stunting impacts a critical, early-developing cognitive system—visual working memory. Stunted infants showed poor visual working memory performance and were easily distractible. Poor performance was associated with reduced engagement of the left anterior intraparietal sulcus, a region involved in visual working memory maintenance and greater suppression in the right temporoparietal junction, a region involved in attentional shifting. When assessed one year later, stunted infants had lower problem-solving scores, while infants of normal height with greater left anterior intraparietal sulcus activation showed higher problem-solving scores. Finally, short-for-age infants with poor physical growth indices but good visual working memory performance showed more positive outcomes suggesting that intervention efforts should focus on improving working memory and reducing distractibility in infancy.

B - 68 Resistance to Distraction and Working Memory Function: Electrophysiological Attentional Markers and Digit Span Performance.

Working memory (WM) function requires attentional focus and resisting distracting stimuli (i.e., resistance to attentional capture [RAC]). People with histories of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) or posttraumatic stress (PTSD) often report difficulties with WM and attention. To better understand the relationship between these two executive functions, we collected neuropsychological and electrophysiological data from a sample of individuals with PTSD and/or mTBI. We characterized WM function in 128 US military veterans (61 controls, 22 PTSD, 24 mTBI, 21 PTSD and mTBI) using the WAIS-IV Digit Span (DS). To examine RAC we completed electroencephalography recordings during an Erikson Flanker task. Flanker task trials were coded as either Congruent (flanker stimuli same direction as target) or Incongruent (opposite direction). We characterized the P1 event-related potential which has shown sensitivity to RAC. There was an interaction between Flanker Type and DS such that poorer WM performance was related to greater difficulties on Incongruent trials. Analyses of P1 amplitude revealed an interaction between DS scores and P1 amplitude with better DS performance related to larger P1 amplitudes in trials with Incongruent compared to Congruent flankers. There was also an interaction between PTSD and Flanker Type such that PTSD was associated with larger P1 amplitudes for Incongruent than Congruent flanker trials. Our observations suggest greater RAC aids in WM function, and is also associated with early perception-related brain responses (i.e., P1) that modulate with demands to resist distracting stimuli. Our results also suggest PTSD is related to electrophysiological functions tied to RAC.

No bones about it: The effect of chewing on cognition in dogs

No work to date has examined the possible enriching effect of chewing on cognition in dogs despite strong relationships shown in other species. In the current study we examined whether the provision of chew toys affected dogs performance on two memory tests and if this relationship was influenced by dogs fearfulness. Kenneled working dogs were assessed on a working memory and maze test on separate days directly after being provided with a chew toy for a five-minute period. We compared chewing audio, extracted from video footage taken during the chew period and quantified using a convolutional neural network (CNN), and fearfulness as measured by a validated behavioral survey (Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire), to performance on each task. We found that in dogs with high levels of fearfulness, a higher frequency of chewing resulted in better working memory performance, while in dogs with low levels of fearfulness, a higher frequency of chewing resulted in poorer working memory performance. We also found that dogs with a higher maximum bite intensity displayed better performance on the maze test. These results are the first to suggest that chewing may have positive benefits on cognition in dogs and that this relationship may be pronounced in dogs with high fearfulness.

Associations among body mass index, working memory performance, gray matter volume, and brain activation in healthy children.

To investigate the neural mechanisms underlying the association between poorer working memory performance and higher body mass index (BMI) in children. We employed structural-(sMRI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) with a 2-back working memory task to examine brain abnormalities and their associations with BMI and working memory performance in 232 children with overweight/obesity (OW/OB) and 244 normal weight children (NW) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development dataset. OW/OB had lower working memory accuracy, which was associated with higher BMI. They showed smaller gray matter (GM) volumes in the left superior frontal gyrus (SFG_L), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, medial orbital frontal cortex, and medial superior frontal gyrus, which were associated with lower working memory accuracy. During the working memory task, OW/OB relative to NW showed weaker activation in the left superior temporal pole, amygdala, insula, and bilateral caudate. In addition, caudate activation mediated the relationship between higher BMI and lower working memory accuracy. Higher BMI is associated with smaller GM volumes and weaker brain activation in regions involved with working memory. Task-related caudate dysfunction may account for lower working memory accuracy in children with higher BMI.

Reduced working memory performance in PTSD and suicide among veterans presenting for treatment

Suicide is among the leading causes of death in the United States, underscoring the continued need to understand the mechanisms underlying suicide risk. A growing body of research has examined the role of working memory deficits in suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs), yet little research has evaluated putative pathways via which working memory impairments may heighten suicide risk. Elevated posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) represent one plausible mechanism through which poor working memory performance may increase STBs. The present study utilized data from 140 treatment-seeking veterans who presented for an intake evaluation in the PTSD Clinical Team of a large VA Medical Center. Veterans completed self-report measures, a semi-structured PTSD evaluation, and a digit span working memory test. In addition to concurrent suicidal ideation assessed during the intake, additional information regarding past suicide attempts, presence of a safety plan, documentation of past suicidal behaviors, and engagement with suicide crisis lines were collected via electronic medical records. Consistent with hypotheses, a significant indirect path emerged such that poor working memory performance predicted greater suicidal ideation, greater likelihood of a past suicide attempt, and greater latent suicide risk via increased PTSS. However, no direct effect of working memory on STBs or indirect paths of PTSS on STBs via working memory emerged. These findings suggest that the relation between working memory and STBs may be explained by PTSS severity.

Working memory and reaction time variability mediate the relationship between polygenic risk and ADHD traits in a general population sample

Endophenotypes are heritable and quantifiable traits indexing genetic liability for a disorder. Here, we examined three potential endophenotypes, working memory function, response inhibition, and reaction time variability, for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) measured as a dimensional latent trait in a large general population sample derived from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM Study. The genetic risk for ADHD was estimated using polygenic risk scores (PRS) whereas ADHD traits were quantified as a dimensional continuum using Bartlett factor score estimates, derived from Attention Problems items from the Child Behaviour Checklist and Effortful Control items from the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire-Revised. The three candidate cognitive endophenotypes were quantified using task-based performance measures. Higher ADHD PRSs were associated with higher ADHD traits, as well as poorer working memory performance and increased reaction time variability. Lower working memory performance, poorer response inhibition, and increased reaction time variability were associated with more pronounced ADHD traits. Working memory and reaction time variability partially statistically mediated the relationship between ADHD PRS and ADHD traits, explaining 14% and 16% of the association, respectively. The mediation effect was specific to the genetic risk for ADHD and did not generalise to genetic risk for four other major psychiatric disorders. Together, these findings provide robust evidence from a large general population sample that working memory and reaction time variability can be considered endophenotypes for ADHD that mediate the relationship between ADHD PRS and ADHD traits.

A-268 Personal Adjustment of Young Adult Survivors of Leukemia/Lymphoma: Examining the Association with Cognition and Sex

Abstract Objective: Survivors of pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia/non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma (ALL/NHL) are at risk of cognitive sequelae of treatment, as well as psychosocial distress. The objectives of this study were to (1) describe self-perceptions of personal adjustment in young adult survivors of pediatric ALL/NHL and (2) examine associations between personal adjustment, cognition, and sex. Method: Thirty-five young adult (x ̅=19.4 years), primarily Latino, survivors of ALL/NHL underwent neuropsychological evaluation, which included assessment of self-reported personal adjustment (Behavior Assessment System for Children – Third Edition [BASC-3]), working memory, processing speed, and sustained attention. Results: Personal adjustment was approximately 0.5 standard deviations below normative expectations (mean T=45.5), with over 28% of the sample endorsing concerns in this area (compared to 18% of the normative population). Self-reliance was the lowest personal adjustment subscale (mean T=42.2), with nearly half (49%) endorsing concerns (compared to 15-21% of the normative population). There were no significant correlations between cognitive measures and personal adjustment subscales. Females endorsed a higher number of elevated personal adjustment subscales compared to males, t(33)=1.99, p=.027, which parallels their poorer working memory performance, t(36)=-2.14; p=.02. Conclusion: Young adult survivors of ALL/NHL are at greater risk of concerns regarding personal adjustment than peers, particularly lower self-reliance. While there does not appear to be a direct relationship between cognition and personal adjustment in this group, females reported more areas of concern and demonstrated worse working memory, confirming their particular vulnerability to long-term cognitive and psychosocial sequelae.

The Effects of Working Memory Load on Auditory Distraction in Adults With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Cognitive control provides us with the ability to inter alia, regulate the locus of attention and ignore environmental distractions in accordance with our goals. Auditory distraction is a frequently cited symptom in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (aADHD)–yet few task-based fMRI studies have explored whether deficits in cognitive control (associated with the disorder) impedes on the ability to suppress/compensate for exogenously evoked cortical responses to noise in this population. In the current study, we explored the effects of auditory distraction as function of working memory (WM) load. Participants completed two tasks: an auditory target detection (ATD) task in which the goal was to actively detect salient oddball tones amidst a stream of standard tones in noise, and a visual n-back task consisting of 0-, 1-, and 2-back WM conditions whilst concurrently ignoring the same tonal signal from the ATD task. Results indicated that our sample of young aADHD (n = 17), compared to typically developed controls (n = 17), had difficulty attenuating auditory cortical responses to the task-irrelevant sound when WM demands were high (2-back). Heightened auditory activity to task-irrelevant sound was associated with both poorer WM performance and symptomatic inattentiveness. In the ATD task, we observed a significant increase in functional communications between auditory and salience networks in aADHD. Because performance outcomes were on par with controls for this task, we suggest that this increased functional connectivity in aADHD was likely an adaptive mechanism for suboptimal listening conditions. Taken together, our results indicate that aADHD are more susceptible to noise interference when they are engaged in a primary task. The ability to cope with auditory distraction appears to be related to the WM demands of the task and thus the capacity to deploy cognitive control.

Cannabis Use, Age of Initiation, and Neurocognitive Performance: Findings from a Large Sample of Heavy Drinking Emerging Adults.

To evaluate the associations between cannabis use and neurocognitive functioning, including self-reported attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, in a large sample of emerging adults (ages 21-25) using a cross-sectional design. A secondary objective was to examine age of cannabis initiation as a moderator. Participants were high-risk drinking emerging adults (n = 598) reporting past-month cannabis use in the following categories: 1) non-users (i.e., never or not in the past month; n = 276), 2) occasional users (i.e., monthly or weekly users; n = 201), and 3) daily users (n = 121). Categorical comparisons were conducted on working memory, attention, behavioral inhibition, delay and probability discounting, verbal intelligence, and ADHD symptoms. Complementary dimensional analyses examined cannabis severity in relation to neurocognition using regressions. Covariates were age, race, sex, income, years of education, tobacco use, and alcohol use. Frequency of cannabis use was significantly associated with poorer working memory performance, more impulsive delay discounting, and greater endorsement of ADHD symptoms, but not other domains. Effect sizes were small and poorer performance was selectively present among daily, not occasional, cannabis users. Earlier age of initiation was not independently or interactively associated with neurocognitive performance. Daily cannabis use was selectively adversely associated with aspects of memory, impulsivity, and subjective attentional functioning, but most cognitive indicators were not implicated, and evidence of amplification by earlier age of initiation was not observed. Ascertaining causal versus consequential roles of cannabis in neurocognitive functioning is an important priority.

Examining the role of ovarian hormones in the association between worry and working memory across the menstrual cycle

Previous research indicates that worry is associated with poorer working memory performance. Moreover, prior work demonstrates that estradiol relates to both worry and working memory performance. In the present study, we sought to further examine interrelations between worry, estradiol and working memory by testing whether estradiol moderates the association between worry and working memory in females. We hypothesized that worry would be associated with poorer working memory performance at higher levels of estradiol. We also conducted exploratory analyses to examine the role of progesterone as a moderator of the association between worry and working memory. Participants were 97 naturally-cycling females who attended four lab sessions across their menstrual cycles. Consistent with predictions, higher average levels of worry were associated with lower working memory accuracy on particularly difficult trials when average levels of estradiol were also high. The same association between higher worry and lower working memory accuracy emerged when average levels of progesterone were high. Findings highlight the importance of considering ovarian hormones in future studies and current theories of anxiety and cognition.

Association between Working Memory and Obesity among Secondary School Children

Introduction: Obesity is not just a term but a threat faced by the younger generation. It affects the vital systems of our body and very importantly impairs the cognitive functions of our brain. Lack of exercise, lethargy, increased usage of electronic gadgets is some of the notable reasons for childhood obesity. This study has been designed to find out how obesity is playing a role in a child’s short term memory skills.&#x0D; Materials and Methods: A Cross sectional epidemiological study was conducted among 125 secondary school children from random urban south Indian population. The students were asked to fill in their general details along with height, weight, hip circumference, waist circumference and asked to play a set of matching games and put in their score to measure working memory.&#x0D; Results: Association between corresponding memory task scores and BMI indicates a strong negative correlation (r = -.008) and (r = -.07).&#x0D; Conclusion: The present results therefore indicate that there is an association between obesity and poorer working memory performance in secondary school children. Therefore to conclude, the extent to which children are physically active is influenced by a multiple and interrelated factors. Addressing physical inactivity and its contribution to childhood overweight obesity requires a broad and holistic approach.

Do goal cue and motor activity impact preschoolers' working memory?

Preschoolers are well known for their poor working memory (WM) performance. This could result from goal neglect, which would hamper the setting of maintenance strategies. Previous studies have shown that preschoolers' WM performance can be improved in game-like tasks, because they provide cues to support goal maintenance. However, in these studies, it was unclear what features of the task (either the main toy or the motor activity required by the game) provide efficient cues. The aim of the present study was to disentangle the two features to examine cue effects in 5- to 7-year-old children. No improvement of WM performance was observed when the toy was a potential goal cue, whereas the motor activity had a detrimental effect in all age groups. The latter effect could result from a distraction of attention from attention-based maintenance activities. Hence, preschoolers' poor WM performance would not be fundamentally due to goal neglect.

The Working Memory Network and Its Association with Working Memory Performance in Survivors of non-CNS Childhood Cancer

ABSTRACT Childhood cancer and its treatment puts survivors at risk of low working memory capacity. Working memory represents a core cognitive function, which is crucial in daily life and academic tasks. The aim of this functional MRI (fMRI) study was to examine the working memory network of survivors of childhood cancer without central nervous system (CNS) involvement and its relation to cognitive performance. Thirty survivors (aged 7–16 years, ≥ 1 year after cancer treatment) and 30 healthy controls performed a visuospatial working memory task during MRI, including a low- and a high-demand condition. Working memory performance was assessed using standardized tests outside the scanner. When cognitive demands increased, survivors performed worse than controls and showed evidence for slightly atypical working memory-related activation. The survivor group exhibited hyperactivation in the right-hemispheric superior parietal lobe (SPL) in the high- compared to the low-demand working memory condition, while maintaining their performance levels. Hyperactivation in the right SPL coincided with poorer working memory performance outside the scanner in survivors. Even in survivors of childhood cancer without CNS involvement, we find neural markers pointing toward late effects in the cerebral working memory network. Abbreviations fMRI: Functional magnetic resonance imaging; CNS: Central nervous system; MNI: Montreal Neurological Institute; SES: Socioeconomic status; SPL: Superior parietal lobe

Neighborhood Disadvantage, Brain, and Neurocognitive Function: Relations Among Cognitively Normal Older Adults

Neighborhood disadvantage has been linked to poor health; however, research has not adequately examined its influence, across multiple domains of disadvantage, on neurocognitive function and underlying brain health in older adults. Thus, the objective was to examine associations between neighborhood disadvantage, brain health, and neurocognitive performance, and examine age and sex as effect modifiers. The analysis included 136 older adults with a mean age of 68.04y who underwent neuropsychological and psychosocial testing and 3T cranial magnetic resonance imaging. Neighborhood disadvantage was characterized using the Area Deprivation Index (ADI). Multivariable regression analysis, adjusted for age, sex, education, and depression, showed that greater ADI score (greater disadvantage) was associated with poorer working memory performance (p<.05) and lower hippocampal volumes (p<.05), with no evidence of effect modification. Results suggest that greater neighborhood disadvantage may play a role in working memory and brain structure, which are vital to quality of life in older adulthood.

The contribution of good sleep to working memory in preschool: A matter of sleep quality or duration?

Good sleep is essential for efficient cognitive performance. The present research examined the link between sleep and working memory (WM) during early childhood, a period of major advances in neurodevelopment. The sample included 80 healthy children, 40 3-year-olds and 40 4-year-olds, attending childcare settings. The children were individually tested using WM tasks; parents completed sleep questionnaires. On a group level, WM improved with age. Process model analysis demonstrated the effect of age on WM (P=0.001) and indicated an age-specific involvement of sleep quality (P=0.01). Whereas sleep duration was not associated with WM, at 4years of age, sleep disturbance with physical symptoms (e.g., breathing, motor) was associated with poor WM performance. Among 3-year-old girls, fear-related sleep disruption was associated with better WM performance. Together, the results suggest that the association between sleep and WM is dependent on: (a) specific aspects of sleep, (b) age, and (c) gender. More research is essential for unraveling the underlying neuro-maturational processes and mechanisms.

Beginning of the Pandemic: COVID-19-Elicited Anxiety as a Predictor of Working Memory Performance.

Increasing evidence indicates that the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is associated with adverse psychological effects, including heightened levels of anxiety. This study examined whether COVID-19-related anxiety levels during the early stage of the pandemic predicted demanding working memory (WM) updating performance. Altogether, 201 healthy adults (age range, 18–50) mostly from North America and the British Isles were recruited to this study via the crowdsourcing site www.prolific.co. The results showed that higher levels of COVID-19-related anxiety during the first weeks of the pandemic outbreak were associated with poorer WM performance as measured by the n-back paradigm. Critically, the unique role of COVID-19-related anxiety on WM could not be explained by demographic factors, or other psychological factors such as state and trait anxiety or fluid intelligence. Moreover, across three assessment points spanning 5–6 weeks, COVID-19-related anxiety levels tended to decrease over time. This pattern of results may reflect an initial psychological “shock wave” of the pandemic, the cognitive effects of which may linger for some time, albeit the initial anxiety associated with the pandemic would change with habituation and increasing information. Our results contribute to the understanding of cognitive–affective reactions to a major disaster.