Poor Parenting Practices Research Articles

‘It’s so Beneficial to be Able to Stop the Cycle’: Perceptions of Intergenerational Transmission of Violence and Parenting Practices Among Pregnant Women and their Abusive Partners

Abstract Purpose This study aimed to explore how pregnant women who experience Domestic Violence and Abuse (DVA) and men who commit DVA understand the impact of their childhood environment on their relationships with their children and co-parents, and how a DVA psychological intervention may shape their parenting. Methods Repeated individual qualitative interviews were conducted with pregnant mothers and fathers who reported DVA and were taking part in a psychological intervention to address DVA. Interviews were carried out at the start (during pregnancy) and end of the intervention (two years post-childbirth). Reflexive Thematic Analysis was used to analyse interviews. Results 56 interviews (26 mothers; 13 fathers) were analysed. Five themes were identified: (1) Acknowledging childhood experiences of DVA; (2) The scars of traumatic experiences; (3) Challenging the silencing of abuse; (4) The transmission of parenting styles and behaviours from one generation to another; (5) Becoming the best parent one can be. The intergenerational transmission of violence was identifiable in most narratives. Despite this, several participants described skills they acquired during the intervention (e.g., emotional regulation strategies) as assisting in interrupting violence and improving their relationships with their children. Conclusions Participants who acknowledged having encountered childhood abuse recognised it as one of several risk factors for DVA in adulthood. They also discussed the potential for trauma-informed interventions to address the intergenerational transmission of violence and poor parenting practices.

Hubungan Antara Pola Asuh Orang Tua Dengan Perilaku Sosial Pada Anak Usia Dini di PAUD Tunas Bangsa Kota Padang

The background of this study is the poor parenting practices of parents in PAUD Tunas Bangsa, Padang City, which are a result of the pupils' subpar social skills. (1) To gain a general understanding of parenting practices in PAUD Tunas Bangsa, Padang City. (2) Visit Tunas Bangsa PAUD Padang City for a general review of social behavior in young children. (3) examining at PAUD Tunad Bangsa in Padang City how parenting practices and social behavior in young children relate to one another.This study is a quantitative correlational study, with the objective of determining the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. 28 pupils made up the study's population. This study used simple random sampling as its method of sampling.

Implementasi Metode Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ) Untuk Klasifikasi Keluarga Beresiko Stunting

Stunting is a condition where a child's height is too short compared to children of the same age. This condition affects the health of toddlers in the short and long term, such as suboptimal body posture in adulthood, decreased reproductive health, and decreased learning capacity, resulting in suboptimal performance in school. One of the causes of stunting is a lack of nutrition, basic health facilities, and poor parenting practices. However, the current data collection and classification of families at risk of stunting still use Microsoft Excel, which is ineffective in processing large data. Therefore, the LVQ method, which is an improvement of the Vector Quantization method, is used to accelerate the classification process. In this study, 5 parameters were tested, and the optimal result was achieved by using 7 input neurons, Chebychev distance as the distance measure, a learning rate of 0.1, 7 epochs, and 30% of training data. With these parameters, an accuracy of 99.38% was obtained. Based on these results, the LVQ method can help improve accuracy in classifying families at risk of stunting

Parenting Relationships With Stunting Incidence In Toddlers Aged 12-59 Months In Pasirhaur Village In 2022

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that the prevalence of parenting and stunting worldwide is 22 percent or as many as 149.2 million in 2020. Stunting is caused by multi-dimensional factors and not only caused by malnutrition experienced by pregnant women and children under five, another cause is poor parenting practices, including the lack of knowledge of mothers about health and nutrition before and during pregnancy, as well as after mothers give birth. Purpose of Writing : To determine the relationship between parenting style and the incidence of stunting in toddlers aged 12-59 months in Pasirhaur village in 2022. Research Methods : Case control research with a quantitative approach. A sample of 82 mothers with toddlers in November 2022. The sampling technique used is non-probability sampling with purposive sampling method. Results of the study : Poor parenting styles were more common in cases of stunting, with 31 people (75.6%) than good parenting styles for stunted toddlers, with 10 people (24.4%). In the chy-square test, the results of parenting variables for mothers' knowledge were lacking P value 0.008 <0.05, Not exclusive breastfeeding P value 0.03 <0.05, not MP-ASI P value 0.055 <0.05 , and care for sick children who lack P value 0.012 <0.05, so the analysis is that there is a relationship between parenting parents and stunting in toddlers aged 12-59 months in Pasirhaur Village in 2022. Conclusion : Good parenting can reduce the risk of stunting in toddlers and it is hoped that health workers, especially midwives

Parental Rejection and Adolescents' Learning Ability: A Multiple Mediating Effects of Values and Self-Esteem.

Today's society has been paying increasing attention to the important impact of family parenting practices on the development of adolescents. Adolescents with poor parenting practices may have poor academic performance in school, have low self-evaluation, and are more likely to be captured by video games and short videos. The present research explored the mediating role of fashion values and self-esteem in the relationship between a negative parenting style and adolescent learning ability. We aimed to deepen our understanding of the relationship between family parenting and adolescent value identity, as well as between individual self-esteem and school adaptation. We based our research on a total of 997 students in Shanghai from grades 6, 8 and 10. Furthermore, we made use of parenting behaviour, Chinese adolescent values, and of the revised Chinese version of the class drama questionnaires and of the Children's self-awareness scale. The chain mediation model was used to analyse the mediating effect of fashion values and self-esteem on parental rejection and peer evaluation learning ability. The results showed that fashion values played a partial mediating role between parental rejection and adolescent learning ability, and that parental rejection positively predicted fashion values, and fashion values negatively predicted learning ability. Self-esteem played a partial mediating role between parental rejection and adolescent learning ability, while parental rejection negatively predicted self-esteem and self-esteem positively predicted learning ability. Fashion values and self-esteem played a chain mediating role between parental rejection and adolescent learning ability, as parental rejection negatively predicted fashion values, fashion values positively predicted self-esteem, and self-esteem positively predicted learning ability. In conclusion, a negative parenting style influenced the development of adolescent value recognition and self-esteem, and affected the development of adolescent learning ability. That said, we should encourage families to adopt a positive parenting style and adolescent quality education to positively impact adolescent development.

Parenting Characteristics Protective Against Substance Use and Deviant Peer Involvement in High-Risk Neighborhoods

Robust research shows that poor parenting practices are related to adverse outcomes among adolescents; however, few have examined the interaction between parenting variables and adolescent outcomes within the context of exposure to relentless crime. The current study examined the combined effects of parental monitoring and discipline on marijuana involvement and deviant peer affiliation among adolescent males living in Los Angeles neighborhoods with concentrated crime. For this study, areas with higher-than-average crime rates were selected based on census data, published statistics, and law-enforcement data. The study included 349 males between 13 and 17 years of age, mostly Latino (70.2%) and African American (28.4%). Data were collected using questionnaires to interview participants and analyzed using logistic regression. Results suggest that among adolescent males in geographic areas of high violence and crime, the interaction between parental monitoring and discipline was significantly related to marijuana involvement and deviant peer affiliation. Follow-up analyses showed parental monitoring was only an effective tool at higher levels of consistent parental discipline. In the absence of consistent discipline, good parental monitoring was ineffective at preventing marijuana involvement and affiliation with deviant peers. Results suggest that if time and resources are limited, clinicians should consider focusing on the use of consistent discipline with parents residing in high-crime neighborhoods.

Willing but Unable: How Resources Help Low-Income Mothers Care for their Children and Minimise Child Protection Interventions

AbstractLow-income mothers face disproportionately high risks of engaging with statutory child protection systems. Whilst this is often perceived as a result of poor or irresponsible parenting practices, an increasing body of scholarship foregrounds the role of structural issues—such as poverty and homelessness—that constrain mothers’ agency and impact their ability to care for their children. In this article, we examine Australia’s first permanent Supportive Housing for Families (SHF) programme, which offers low-income mothers practical resources to minimise the risk of statutory child protection intervention. Our research aims to understand low-income mothers’ willingness and ability to care for their children, and how mothers engaged with and made meaning of their experiences residing in SHF. Using a qualitative research design, we analyse interview data with programme mothers (n = 17), programme support workers (n = 10) and statutory child protection officers (n = 7). We find that the resources provided through the programme enabled mothers to care for their children in ways that aligned with their parenting beliefs and aspirations. We conclude that SHF programmes may be an effective means through which low-income mothers can overcome the structural barriers that keep them engaged with statutory child protection systems.

Dual trajectories of parenting self-efficacy and depressive symptoms in new, postpartum mothers and socioemotional adjustment in early childhood: A growth mixture model.

Postpartum depression and low parental self-efficacy (PSE) are risk factors for poor child behavior. Little is known, however, about the course of dual trajectories of cooccurring depressive symptoms and PSE or its impact on children's socioemotional development. This study sought to identify trajectories of postpartum PSE and depressive symptoms in new, first-time mothers using growth mixture modeling. Results demonstrated a class of women with "low risk" (88.8%) who manifested low levels of depression and high levels of PSE during the postpartum period; a second group of women, labeled "early risk" (6.3%) with high levels of depression that decreased over time but lower levels of PSE that remained fairly stable; and a final trajectory group deemed the "late-risk" class (4.9%) with initially low levels of depression and high levels of PSE that significantly increased and decreased, respectively, over the period. Early childhood trauma, parenting stress, and poor parenting practices were associated membership in a high-risk class. Mothers in the high-risk groups reported children with more aggressive and defiant behavior at age 3. We conclude by discussing the implications of our findings for developing effective and sensitive interventions.

Roles of Midwives and Indonesian Midwives Association in Reducing Risk Factors for Stunting in Indonesia

Background: Stunting is caused by multi-dimensional factors and the most decisive intervention should be carried out in the first 1,000 days of life. Poor parenting practices, lack of knowledge about health and nutrition before and during pregnancy are some of the contributing factors and 60% of children aged 0-6 months do not receive exclusive breastfeeding.
 Aim: To assess the role of midwives and the Indonesian Midwives Association Professional Organization in reducing the risk of stunting in Indonesia. 
 Method: This type of descriptive research uses an exploratory study approach by assessing the role of midwives and the professional organization of the Indonesian Midwives Association (IBI) in reducing the risk of stunting in Central Sulawesi. The data of 288 midwives were collected using google form from 22 July 2020 to 22 August 2020. Data were analyzed by SPSS.
 Result: In general, midwives have provided maternal and child health books to pregnant women, recorded complete maternal and child health records, conducted antenatal care for pregnant women, provided nutritional food counseling for pregnant women, gave Fe 90 tablets to pregnant women, provided calcium tablets to pregnant women, conducting classes for pregnant women, delaying umbilical cord cutting (>30 minutes), providing vitamin A to postpartum mothers, conducting exclusive breastfeeding counseling, providing family planning services, providing IYCF counseling. However, for the activities of Implementing a special stunting prevention program, implementing postnatal care and initiating early breastfeeding still need improvement.
 Conclusion: The role of midwives in efforts to prevent stunting in Indonesia with midwives have provided maternal and child health books to pregnant women. Delaying umbilical cord cutting to 30 minutes, giving vitamin A to postpartum mothers, breastfeeding counseling, providing family planning services, providing IYCF counseling

Major depression, temperament, and social support as psychosocial mechanisms of the intergenerational transmission of parenting styles.

In this three-generation longitudinal study of familial depression, we investigated the continuity of parenting styles, and major depressive disorder (MDD), temperament, and social support during childrearing as potential mechanisms. Each generation independently completed the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), measuring individuals' experiences of care and overprotection received from parents during childhood. MDD was assessed prospectively, up to 38 years, using the semi-structured Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (SADS). Social support and temperament were assessed using the Social Adjustment Scale - Self-Report (SAS-SR) and Dimensions of Temperament Scales - Revised, respectively. We first assessed transmission of parenting styles in the generation 1 to generation 2 cycle (G1→G2), including 133 G1 and their 229 G2 children (367 pairs), and found continuity of both care and overprotection. G1 MDD accounted for the association between G1→G2 experiences of care, and G1 social support and temperament moderated the transmission of overprotection. The findings were largely similar when examining these psychosocial mechanisms in 111 G2 and their spouses (G2+S) and their 136 children (G3) (a total of 223 pairs). Finally, in a subsample of families with three successive generations (G1→G2→G3), G2 experiences of overprotection accounted for the association between G1→G3 experiences of overprotection. The results of this study highlight the roles of MDD, temperament, and social support in the intergenerational continuity of parenting, which should be considered in interventions to "break the cycle" of poor parenting practices across generations.

Oxytocin receptor gene and parental bonding modulate prefrontal responses to cries: a NIRS Study

The ability to interpret and regulate emotions relies on experiences of emotional socialization, obtained firstly through the interaction with the parents, and on genetic features that affect how individuals take on social situations. Evidence from the genetic field states that specific allelic variations of the oxytocin receptor gene polymorphisms regulate physiological modulation of human behavior, especially concerning responses to social cues and affiliative behaviors. Starting from this gene-by-environment interaction frame, we assessed 102 young adults for OXTr rs53576 and rs2254298, recalled parental bonding (using the Parental Bonding Instrument), and recorded participants’ neural responses to social stressors using Near InfraRed Spectroscopy (NIRS). The results highlight that higher genetic susceptibility (G/G homozygous) to familiar context and positive early life interactions modulate more optimal neural responses to general social cues, in terms of promptness to action. With regards to the dimensions of parental bonding, we found lateralized effects, with greater activation in the right prefrontal cortex for Care subscales, and on the left side of the prefrontal cortex for Overprotection. Results provide evidence to understand the neurological mechanisms behind the negative impact of poor parenting practices on the child.

Pola Asuh Dan Pendapatan Keluarga Dengan Kejadian Stunting Pada Anak Usia 2-5 Tahun Di Wilayah Kerja Puskesmas Bohabak

Stunting is defined as height according to age -2 standard median child growth curve. One of the causes of stunting is poor parenting practices. Family income influences a person's ability to access certain foods which affect the nutritional status of children. The purpose of this study was to determine the pattern of fostering and family income with stunting in the work area of ​​the Bohabak Health Center, North Bolaang Mongondow Regency. his type of research is analytic observational using cross sectional design. The number of samples determined by Purposive Sampling as many as 41 people aged 2-5 years. Bivariate data analysis used Chi square test with Fisher's Exact value. The results showed the sample in the short category is 68.3% and in the very short category 31.7%, the sample gets good parenting ie 63.4% and parenting less 36.6%, the sample that has high family income is 22% and low family income 78%. It is known that there is no significant relationship between Parenting and Stunting in children aged 2-5 years in the work area of ​​the Bohabak Health Center. There is a significant relationship between family income with the incidence of stunting in children aged 2-5 years in the work area of ​​the Bohabak Community Health Center. It is recommended for puskesmas especially nutrition programs to provide counseling to adolescents, women of childbearing age and pregnant women about the causes of stunting and the importance of handling the First 1000 Days of Life.

Coping, stress, and negative childhood experiences: The link to psychopathology, self-harm, and suicidal behavior.

Early life experiences, such as childhood adversities or poor parenting practices, can impact on the ability to cope with stressors across the lifespan. Furthermore, poor coping skills can lead to the development of mental illnesses, self-harm, and suicidal behavior. This study aimed to examine demographic differences in stress levels and to determine if those who had endured negative childhood experiences would be more likely to develop psychological problems and display suicidal behavior when current stress levels were accounted for. The study also explored the link between coping and mental health problems. Finally, it aimed to predict risk and protective factors related to good coping skills. The study utilized data obtained from the Ulster University Student Wellbeing Study, conducted across four university campuses in Northern Ireland in 2015 (n = 716) as part of the World Health Organization World Mental Health (WMH) International College Student Initiative. Mental health problems and early childhood experiences were examined using questions adapted from the WMH Composite International Diagnostic Interview, with self-harm and suicidal behavior measured using the Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors Interview (SITBI). Females, non-heterosexuals, and older students experienced more current stress. When current stress levels were high, childhood adversities and parental overcontrol and overindulgence were related to higher rates of mental health problems, self-harm, and suicidal behavior. Poor coping skills were associated with negative mental health outcomes. Social support and good emotion-regulation strategies were related to effective coping, while parental overcontrol and overindulgence, female gender, and younger age were related to poorer coping. The study highlights the importance of developing good coping skills to deal with life stressors, thereby minimizing the risk of psychological problems and suicidal behavior. The findings provide support for initiatives to help parents improve their parenting skills and other programs to help young people cope with stress, and to develop social networks and adaptive emotion-regulation strategies.

Vulnerable Child Syndrome.

1. Kristine Schmitz, MD* 1. *St Christopher’s Hospital for Children/Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA Vulnerable child syndrome (VCS) describes a phenomenon in which a child is perceived as being at higher risk for medical, behavioral, or developmental problems than is warranted by the child’s current health. It is most often thought to occur in children who have experienced a serious or life-threatening event or who have a chronic medical condition. However, VCS should be considered a maladaptive family dynamic and can also occur in families that have not experienced a significant event, particularly where parental mental health needs are unmet. Parental perception of exaggerated risk may lead to overuse of medical services, possible unnecessary interventions, and poor parenting practices, parent-child attachment, and child development. Several factors may predispose families to develop these maladaptive relationships and perceptions of their child. Infertility, pregnancy loss or emergent pregnancy complications, and premature birth may result in VCS. While the child is in the NICU, parents of premature infants face uncertainty about their child’s health, and many premature children develop chronic medical problems, many of which require subspecialty involvement. In addition, parents of children who have experienced a life-threatening event (eg, intubation due to respiratory syncytial virus) or diagnosis (eg, cancer) may continue to fear serious illness even after the illness has resolved. Similarly, children diagnosed as having chronic medical conditions, such as asthma or type 1 diabetes, require ongoing management and can have exacerbations, increasing the risk of parental misperception of vulnerability. Last, early childhood feeding difficulty or excessive crying may predispose families to develop VCS. Parental mental health is an important consideration in identifying risk factors for the development of VCS. Acute stress disorder or posttraumatic stress disorder in parents …

Shifting parental roles, caregiving practices and the face of child development in low resource informal settlements of Nairobi: experiences of community health workers and school teachers

Approximately, 42% of the Kenyan population live below the poverty line. Rapid growth and urbanization of Kenya’s population have resulted in a changing poverty and food security environment in high-density urban areas. Lack of basic food needs in Kenya affects approximately 34.8% rural population and 7.6% of its urban population. Using multi-community stakeholders such as teachers and community health workers (CHWs), this paper examined food insecurity and its consequences on caregiving practices and child development. A qualitative study design was utilized. Key informant interviews and focused-group discussions with four primary school teachers and three CHWs and a nurse in-charge working within Kariobangi and Kangemi were applied to elicit various perspectives from family-, school- and community-level challenges that influence caregiving practices and child development. Grounded theory method was applied for qualitative data sifting and thematic analysis. Our findings exposed various challenges at the school, family and the community levels that affect caregiving practices and consequent child development. School-level challenges included lack of adequate amenities for effective learning, food insecurity, absenteeism and mental health challenges. Family-level barriers included lack of parenting skills, financial constraints, domestic violence and lack of social support, while community challenges such as unemployment, poor living conditions, cultural practices, lack of social support and poor community follow-up mechanisms contributed to poor parenting practices and child development. Parenting practices and holistic child development strategies in resource poor settings should focus on parenting skills, food security, quality education and addressing parents and children’s mental health challenges.

Informal Support among Low-income Mothers Post Welfare Reform: A Systematic Review.

The vulnerability and instability of low-income mothers situated in a context with a weak public safety net make informal social support one of few options many low-income mothers have to meet basic needs. This systematic review examines (a) social support as an empirical construct, (b) the restricted availability of one important aspect of social support-informal perceived support, hereafter informal support-among low-income mothers, (c) the role of informal support in maternal, economic, parenting, and child outcomes, (d) the aspects of informal support that influence its effects, and (e) directions for future research. Traditional systematic review methods resulted in an appraisal of 65 articles published between January 1996 and May 2017. Findings indicated that informal support is least available among mothers most in need. Informal support provides some protection from psychological distress, economic hardship, poor parenting practices, and poor child outcomes. To promote informal support and its benefits among low-income families, future research can advance knowledge by defining the quintessential characteristics of informal support, identifying instruments to capture these characteristics, and providing the circumstances in which support can be most beneficial to maternal and child well-being. Consistent measurement and increased understanding of informal support and its nuances can inform intervention design and delivery to strengthen vulnerable mothers' informal support perceptions thereby improving individual and family outcomes.

Strategies to Avoid Replication Failure With Evidence-Based Prevention Interventions: Case Examples From the Strengthening Families Program.

Research has found disturbing long-term effects of poor parenting on children's behavioral health including addiction, delinquency, depression/anxiety, and poorer health as adults. Poor parenting practices thus contribute substantially to the health crisis in America. However, skilled, nurturing parents, or caretakers can help youth avoid these developmental problems. A number of family and parenting evidence-based interventions (EBIs) that teach parenting skills are now available for dissemination. Unfortunately, replications of EBIs do not always produce the original positive results. Organizations that seek to use family EBIs to improve parenting and family skills need to avoid practices that create replication failure. We examine several possible factors that contribute to replication failure using examples from five replications of the EBI "Iowa Strengthening Families Program for ages 10-14." We then share six strategies conducive to avoid replication failures including (1) choosing the right program and implementation strategy for the population, (2) administering the right "dosage," (3) choosing and properly training implementers, (4) maintaining program integrity and adherence, (5) ensuring cultural sensitivity, and (6) ensuring accurate and complete reporting of evaluation results. These guidelines can advance prevention science to meet the demands of a growing public health agenda.

The Role of Poor Parenting and Parental Approval for Children’s Moral Disengagement

Research indicates that involving families is essential to success of bullying intervention. Moral disengagement is a strong predictor of aggressive behavior including school bullying. We were interested in the proximal role of parents in late childhood and early adolescence for moral disengagement. We examined whether the relation between specific poor parenting practices and moral disengagement was mediated by expected parental approval of aggression and whether age was a moderator in a theoretical moderated mediation model. We used two-wave longitudinal data of 609 students (50% boys, 52% 5th grade, 48% 7th grade). The results are complex and differ across the two age groups. In late childhood, repeated corporal punishment was associated with higher levels of moral disengagement 1 year later, and this relation was mediated by an increase in expected parental approval of aggression. Also, low levels of monitoring and supervision were directly associated with higher levels of moral disengagement 1 year later. In early adolescence, lower levels of monitoring and supervision were associated with higher levels of moral disengagement 1 year later, and this association was partially mediated by an increase in expected parental approval of aggression. These results demonstrate that in late childhood and early adolescence, poor parenting practices, more specifically harsh discipline and poor monitoring, are relevant for moral disengagement, partly because they create the expectation of parental approval for aggression.

Web-Based Parenting Support: Development of the COPING Confident Parenting Programme

Parents have the most significant impact on children’s development and the key parenting factors that promote child development and wellbeing are well known. Furthermore, many behavioural, social and emotional problems in children are associated with poor parenting practices. Parenting interventions that address parental skill deficits and teach positive parenting principles based on social learning theory are effective and are the recommended treatment for conduct disorder. Alongside the development of treatment programmes, universal parenting programmes have been developed; many present the same core parenting principles but their rationales vary from promoting children’s development to addressing common behavioural challenges and the evidence for these programmes is less well established. Most parents now have internet access and are making daily use of it, including seeking advice on parenting matters but that advice is often anecdotal and lacking evidence. In the meantime, a small number of web-based programmes, including parenting programmes have been developed and evaluated. This paper summarises the rationale for web-based universal programmes to support parents and briefly describes the history, content and a summary of the initial research on the COPING (confident parent internet guide) programme developed by the authors. The paper concludes with suggestions for future research directions.

Interparental Conflict and Adolescents’ Relational Aggression and Loneliness: The Mediating Role of Maternal Psychological Control

Research has shown that frequent, intense, and poorly resolved conflict between parents relates to adolescents’ adjustment problems but the mechanisms that explain such a link have not been fully uncovered. In this prospective study, we relied on the spillover hypothesis and investigated through an integrated multi-informant model whether maternal psychological control would account for the associations between interparental conflict and adolescents’ relational aggression and loneliness. Participants were 527 Turkish adolescents (M age = 14.36 years, SD = 0.33) and 307 mothers (M age = 41.18 years, SD = 4.47). Analyses through structural equation modeling indicated that interparental conflict (as assessed by both the adolescents and their mothers) related positively to maternal psychological control (as assessed again by both of them) which in turn predicted adolescent-reported relational aggression and loneliness, 8 months later. These findings are in line with the spillover hypothesis and show that dysfunctional relationships between parents are related to poor parenting practices and in turn to adolescents’ maladjustment.