Poor Biosecurity Measures Research Articles

Evaluation of cattle farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in Rwanda.

The misuse of antimicrobials in livestock may lead to the emergence and spread of resistant pathogens harmful to human, animal, and environmental health. Therefore, determining the behavior and practices of farmers regarding antimicrobial use (AMU) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is crucial for addressing the growing threat of AMR. This cross-sectional study was conducted in the Eastern Province of Rwanda on 441 participants using a structured questionnaire to determine the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) towards AMU and AMR. Frequency distributions, chi-square test of association and logistic regression model were used to analyze the data. This study showed poor biosecurity measures at the farm level with various antimicrobials used here; 83.9% of participants obtained them from friends and neighbors and 61.9% used them for growth promotion. Our assessment revealed a low level of KAP towards AMR among cattle farmers from the study districts. Our data showed that at a 69% cutoff, only 52.6% of farmers had correct knowledge, whereas 56% had good attitudes (47% cutoff). Finally, 52.8% had correct practices toward AMR based on a calculated cutoff of 50%. Positive attitudes, correct knowledge, and practices regarding AMU and AMR were associated with higher educational levels. Sex was correlated with knowledge and attitudes, whereas farm location was associated with attitudes and practices. Farmers expressed a need for more access to veterinary services and AMR-related training for themselves, the community animal health workers, and veterinarians. This study highlighted the low levels of KAP associated with using antimicrobials, which may lead to the misuse of antimicrobials and the spread of AMR. It is imperative to develop and implement cross-cutting measures to minimize antibiotic usage and reduce the risk of antibiotic resistance.

Histomonosis in German turkey flocks: possible ways of pathogen introduction

ABSTRACT Histomonosis has become an important disease of turkeys since the ban of effective feed additives and therapeutics. Some critical risk factors for pathogen introduction into a farm have already been identified but open questions remain. Therefore, a retrospective case–control-study was used to identify the most significant risk factors for Histomonas (H.) meleagridis-introduction into a turkey farm. A total of 113 questionnaires were collected from 73 control-farms and 40 Histomonas-positive case-farms in Germany between 20 April 2021 and 31 January 2022. The data were analysed for possible risk factors by descriptive and univariate, single- and multi-factorial analysis. The presence of earthworms, snails and beetles, as vectors of H. meleagridis, as well as the proximity to other poultry-keeping farms in addition to a frequent observation of wild birds nearby the turkey farm, showed the highest risk potential for histomonosis outbreaks. Furthermore, poor biosecurity measures seem to have increased the probability for an outbreak. Insufficient climate management, straw as litter material and an inadequate litter refill frequency might have promoted a favourable humidity for vector- or pathogen survival providing important areas for improved disease control measures in the future. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS A retrospective case–control-study was conducted to identify impactful risk factors for a H. meleagridis introduction. The probability of a histomonosis outbreak was increased by the presence of vectors and reservoirs nearby a farm. Impactful risk factors concerning biosecurity measures, climate and litter management were identified.

Prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in broilers in North Lebanon.

Great attention has been given recently to the prevalence of different Campylobacter spp. in poultry since the latter are considered the major contributing reservoir of human campylobacteriosis. In Lebanon, the occurrence of campylobacteriosis in humans is high. The aim of our first-of-its-kind study in the country was to estimate the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in broilers from a convenient sample of farms in North Lebanon. One hundred twenty-five fecal samples were collected from 25 broiler farms, which were selected, examined, and classified according to their biosecurity level and rearing system. All samples were subjected to qualitative microbiological culture testing and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays to detect Campylobacter spp. Despite the reported use of antibiotics, cell culture and PCR were positive for 44% and 88%, respectively. This implies that this bacterium is resistant to antibiotics used on the farms. Furthermore, Campylobacter infection rate was higher in open (92%) than in closed (85%) system farms. All farms with poor biosecurity measures, and 82% of farms with good biosecurity measures had Campylobacter infections, and the difference was significant (p < 0.05). Our results show that campylobacteriosis was found prevalent among broilers in North Lebanon, making them potential carriers of Campylobacter spp. Future studies should include antibiotic susceptibility testing to check the susceptibility pattern of isolates.

Antibiotic prescription patterns and non-clinical factors influencing antibiotic use by Ecuadorian veterinarians working on cattle and poultry farms: A cross-sectional study

Understanding antibiotic prescription patterns and non-clinical factors influencing antibiotic use is essential for implementing strategies to promote appropriate antibiotic use. There is, however, limited research exploring these issues with Ecuadorian veterinarians. Therefore, a questionnaire was developed and applied cross-sectionally to veterinarians (n = 173) from two professional organizations to explore the antibiotic prescription patterns and non-clinical factors (e.g., attitudes and perceptions) influencing antibiotic use, and to identify strategies to reduce antibiotic use. The response rate was 78.4%. Responses were compared between veterinarians working mainly on cattle and poultry farms using Mann-Whitney U tests. The most important attitudes, beliefs and perceptions towards antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and antibiotic use were identified with the Relative Importance Index (RII). Veterinarians showed high awareness of AMR and its implications for public health, as well as the necessity of reducing antibiotic use. However, some veterinarians appear to underestimate the potential contribution of veterinary antibiotic use on AMR in humans. Veterinarians self-reported high prescription (> 20%) of antibiotics for cattle and poultry that are critically important for human medicine, such as 3rd and 4th generation cephalosporins, polymyxins and quinolones. Further, antibiotic therapy was not tailored to disease type. Cattle and poultry veterinarians perceived similar barriers to increasing antibiotic stewardship including: poor biosecurity measures, animal confinement, low feed quality, farmers’ behaviors (such as stopping antibiotic treatment, storing antibiotics on farms, buying antibiotics in veterinary supply stores), and sales agents’ roles as non-professional prescribers of antibiotics. Overall, veterinarians were broadly supportive (>90%) of most strategies to promote appropriate antibiotic use. They saw more merit in improving biosecurity of farms and implementing educational programs for farmers and veterinarians. This study provides insight into the complexity of antibiotic use on Ecuadorian farms and the need for holistic strategies in a One Health context, to achieve antibiotic stewardship.

COMMERCIAL LAYING HEN PRODUCTION AND EGG VALUE CHAIN MAPPING IN NORTHERN ETH

&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background:&lt;/strong&gt; In Ethiopia, commercial farms have increased in farm size, and the majority of the large-scale poultry farms are concentrated around Addis Ababa the capital city of Ethiopia. &lt;strong&gt;Objective:&lt;/strong&gt; To assess poultry production, map value chains and identify major production challenges in Northern Ethiopia. &lt;strong&gt;Methodology:&lt;/strong&gt; A multistage sampling technique along with a proportionate sample size determination method was used to fix the sample size. Accordingly, 147, 109 and 64 poultry producers were selected from semi-intensive, small-scale, and medium-scale farms, respectively. Nine focus group discussions comprising relevant stakeholders were conducted. &lt;strong&gt;Result:&lt;/strong&gt; The earlier age at first egg-laying in weeks was reported as 16.7 ± 0.93 in the medium-scale production system. A high laying percentage of 85.47 &lt;strong&gt;± &lt;/strong&gt;5.01 was recorded in the medium-scale and the highest mortality 23.5 &lt;strong&gt;± &lt;/strong&gt;8.8 was in semi-intensive. The price of eggs varied by about +38% in November 2019/2020 and negatively changed price by -22% in May 2019/2020. In a ranking exercise, feed cost, feed quality, product marketing, disease, predator, and lack of information and training were ranked top five. Further risk factors were ranked, accordingly, lack of vaccine, poor biosecurity measures, and management were ranked as major causes. &lt;strong&gt;Implication: &lt;/strong&gt;The government and private sector should promote improving the feeding habit of the community and improve the management practice. &lt;strong&gt;Conclusion:&lt;/strong&gt; The high price of feed ingredients, limited access to veterinary services, poor market linkages in the value chain, poor feeding habits, and poor extension services aggravated by a lack of awareness of producers were the most important challenges affecting commercial production.&lt;/p&gt;

Farm characteristics and sero-prevalence of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) antibodies in pigs of Nepal.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome is a highly infectious disease of swine caused by PRRS virus (PRRSV). To evaluate the prevalence of PRRSV antibodies in the four districts of hilly and terai regions of Nepal. Toassess the farm characteristics through a questionnaire interview of farmersregarding management practices and PRRS. A cross-sectional study was conducted from July 2020 to June 2021 to determine the sero-prevalence of PRRSV in pigs. A total of 180 porcine serum samples were collected from 23 pig farms and tested for PRRSV antibodies by ELISA. Alongside, farm characteristics were also assessed through questionnaire to determine the level of biosecurity measures in the farm, knowledge of the disease and possible control mechanisms. Out of 180 samples, 37 were tested positive resulting the overall sero-prevalence of 20.5%. There was significant association between different districts (p < 0.05) and PRRS prevalence. Prevalence of PRRSV antibody was found higher in Kaski district (10.5%) followed by Sunsari (8.8%) district. Based on age groups, highest prevalence was found in age groups of above 18 months (9.4%), followed by 13-18 months age groups (7.7%). Regarding the knowledge level of the disease, 43% of the farmers responded that they have heard about the disease. Biosecurity practices in the farm was found very poor where only 40% of the farms had disinfectant at the entrance of the farm and 25% pig farmers were found using separate boots while dealing with pigs. The findings of this study reveal the presence of PRRSV antibodies in pigs of Nepal. In addition poor biosecurity measures, management practices and poor knowledge level about the disease among farmers highly affect in the control and prevention of disease thereby affecting the pig production and productivity. Therefore, government should develop and implement effective control measures and biosecurity programs.

Outbreak investigation of African swine fever in Ebonyi State Nigeria,30th April to July, 6th, 2021

Sporadic outbreak of African swine fever (ASF) is still been reported in Nigeria. There is a paucity of information on the lessons learnt in the control of ASF in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. The purpose of this study was to describe the outbreak response to ASF, identify possible risk factors for the outbreak of ASF, and describe strategies for control of ASF in Ebonyi State, with a view to provide information necessary for public health action. We carried out a retrospective/prospective disease investigation by reviewing case reports of outbreaks of ASF in Ebonyi State between 1st January-30th June 2021, from the Department of Veterinary Services, Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FDVS), Ebonyi State, Nigeria. We defined the case definition for a suspected case of ASF, constituted a Rapid Response Team (RRT). Prospective outbreak investigation was conducted by reviewing farm records on sales of pigs to other pig farms. Sample collected include tissue section (spleen, lungs, liver), whole blood (without anticoagulant) at 4-5°C stored in Giostyle, for onward transport to the National Veterinary Research Institute, (NVRI) Jos for Laboratory diagnosis. On the 28th through 30th of April 2021 suspected outbreak of ASF was reported at Izzi Local Government Area (LGA) of Ebonyi State, herd size of 400 pigs. Affected pigs showed marked erythema, Ataxia, acute mortality, respiratory distress. On the 14th of May 2021, the Laboratory sample was confirmed as positive for African swine fever virus (ASFV). Risk factors identified during outbreak investigation were; poor drainages within and between pens, feed sources were mainly agricultural waste products sourced from (poultry, market, livestock), poor biosecurity measures; foot deep, appear not to be in use and poor choice of disinfectants. The need to maintain biosecurity measures within the farm can never be overemphasized. A sporadic outbreak of ASF may occur when there is a breach in the biosafety protocol of a pig production system. Consequently, we discourage feeding poultry waste to pigs, ensure proper drainages within and between pens, use recommended disinfectants. Furthermore, the State Ministry of Agriculture should develop a minimum operating standard for would be pig farmers in the state to ensure biosecurity standards, and supervised compliance before permission is granted for the operation of a pig farms within the state.

Antibiotic Resistance Development in Animal Production: A Cross-Sectional Study.

BackgroundIn recent years, an increase in the development of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens especially foodborne zoonotic bacteria has been observed. As a result, crude mortality rates are increasing due to those resistant bacteria in both human and animal populations, particularly in developing countries like Tanzania where the risk of infection is high due to poor biosecurity measures, close animal–human interactions, and extensive use of antimicrobials for animal productions. One of those zoonotic bacterial pathogens, which commonly contaminates food, is Salmonella.MethodologyA cross-sectional study was carried out on samples collected from diarrheic sheep, to assess the level of antibiotic resistance of Salmonella. From 165 fecal samples, 80 of which were tested positive for Salmonella. The antibiotic resistance level of Salmonella isolates was conducted by the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method using ten commonly used antibiotics in the study area.ResultsOut of 80 Salmonella positive samples, all (100%) of them were resistant to amoxicillin and ampicillin while sixty-eight (85%), 68 (85%), and 60 (75%) isolates were susceptible to gentamicin, ciprofloxacin, and kanamycin, respectively. Thirty (37.5%) Salmonella isolates were resistant to both trimethoprim and tetracycline and 25% of the isolates were resistant to both doxycycline and chloramphenicol while 12.5% of the isolates were resistant to nalidixic acid.ConclusionThis study revealed that the Salmonella isolates of diarrheic sheep developed a wide range of resistance to different antibiotics. Further studies and integrative approaches in a one health framework among animal–human and environmental health professionals are recommended for the mitigation of health risks arising from antibiotic-resistant zoonotic pathogens like Salmonella.

Epidemiological Features of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in Cameroon.

The epidemiology of avian influenza is unknown in Cameroon despite the two outbreaks that occurred in 2006 and 2016-2017, respectively. In order to fill the gap, an attempt was made to provide some basic information on the epidemiology of highly pathogenic avian influenza in Cameroon. Thus, data were collected from follow-up reports of the second HPAI outbreaks prepared by the veterinary health officials of Cameroon and sent to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Two HPAI virus strains (H5N1 and H5N8) turned out to occur, with H5N1 virus involved in the Center, South, West, and Adamawa regions outbreaks and H5N8 involved in the Far North outbreak only. The affected hosts were the laying hens, backyard chickens, turkeys, guinea fowls, ducks, broiler and layer breeders, and geese for the H5N1 virus and the Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus), pigeon, ducks, backyard chickens, and guinea fowls for the H5N8 virus. The first outbreak took place in Mvog-Betsi poultry complex in the Center region on the 20th May 2016 and spread to other regions. The mortality rate varied from 8% to 72% for H5N1 virus and was 96.26% for the H5N8 strain in Indian peafowl. No human case was recorded. The potential supporting factors for disease dissemination identified on the field were the following: poultry and eggs dealers moving from one farm, market, or town to another without any preventive care; poor biosecurity measures on farms and live poultry markets. After the first HPAI H5N1 virus outbreak in 2006, the second HPAI outbreak ten years later (2016-2017) involving two virus strains is a cause of concern for the poultry industry. The Cameroon Epidemio-Surveillance Network needs to be more watchful.

Taking flight with Precision Global Health: a scoping review on avian influenza

Avian influenza is an infection of birds caused by the Influenza A virus, which due to crowded conditions and occupational exposure in live poultry markets, has jumped the species barrier to humans. With an estimated case fatality rate of up to 60%, it is vital to map the existing digital technologies that may be utilized to improve disease monitoring and health outcomes for avian influenza. This scoping review aimed to identify which digital technologies may improve disease prevention, detection and control, and could be used as a basis for strengthening health systems. A search was conducted on PubMed and Web of Science for studies that reported the utilization of digital technologies with specific reference to avian influenza. Search dates ranged from 2009 (January) to 2017 (July). Data was extracted into a summative table, citations managed using EndNote software and data synthesized through grouping digital technology domains, using narrative and graphical methods. The scoping review identified 111 relevant studies, and revealed data modelling (n=72) and novel technologies (n=15) referring primarily to diagnostic tools, to be the most utilized technologies in tackling avian influenza. A large portion of the data-modelling domain was compromised of computer-assisted mathematical modelling (n=42) including mathematical modelling (n=8), simulation modelling (n=14) and spatioal-temporal modelling (n=20), primarily used to estimate outbreak distribution according to migratory patterns and transmission dynamics. A major challenge reported was poor biosecurity measures of poultry markets. Digital technologies indicated potential in improving disease detection, control and prevention, particularly through the use of data modelling with meteorological data sets. However, it became evident, that to maximize potential of these digital technologies better implementation of biosecurity measures would be necessary in majorly affected regions such as Asia.

First detection and characterization of Salmonella spp. in poultry and swine raised in backyard production systems in central Chile.

Little is known about Salmonella serovars circulating in backyard poultry and swine populations worldwide. Backyard production systems (BPS) that raise swine and/or poultry are distributed across Chile, but are more heavily concentrated in central Chile, where industrialized systems are in close contact with BPS. This study aims to detect and identify circulating Salmonella serovars in poultry and swine raised in BPS. Bacteriological Salmonella isolation was carried out for 1744 samples collected from 329 BPS in central Chile. Faecal samples were taken from swine, poultry, geese, ducks, turkeys and peacocks, as well as environmental faecal samples. Confirmation of Salmonella spp. was performed using invA-polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Identification of serovars was carried out using a molecular serotyping approach, where serogroups were confirmed by a multiplex PCR of Salmonella serogroup genes for five Salmonella O antigens (i.e., D, B, C1, C2-C3, and E1), along with two PCR amplifications, followed by sequencing of fliC and fljB genes. A total of 25 samples (1·4% of total samples) from 15 BPS (4·6 % of total sampled BPS) were found positive for Salmonella. Positive samples were found in poultry (chickens and ducks), swine and environmental sources. Molecular prediction of serovars on Salmonella isolated showed 52·0% of S. Typhimurium, 16·0% of S. Infantis, 16·0% S. Enteritidis, 8·0% S. Hadar, 4·0% S. Tennessee and 4·0% S. Kentucky. Poor biosecurity measures were found on sampled BPS, where a high percentage of mixed confinement systems (72·8%); and almost half of the sampled BPS with improper management of infected mortalities (e.g. selling the carcasses of infected animals for consumption). Number of birds other than chickens (P = 0·014; OR = 1·04; IC (95%) = 1·01-1·07), mixed productive objective (P = 0·030; OR = 5·35; IC (95%) = 1·24-27·59) and mixed animal replacement origin (P = 0017; OR = 5·19; IC (95%) = 1·35-20·47) were detected as risk factors for BPS positivity to Salmonella spp. This is the first evidence of serovars of Salmonella spp. circulating in BPS from central Chile. Detected serovars have been linked to human and animal clinical outbreaks worldwide and in Chile, highlighting the importance of BPS on the control and dissemination of Salmonella serovars potentially hazardous to public health.

Constraints to Vegetable Production Resulting from Pest and Diseases Induced by Climate Change and Globalization: A Review

Vegetable production worldwide is constrained by pests and diseases which effects are exacerbated by climate change and variability. Greenhouse gas emissions are also increasing due to poor agricultural practices and other human activities. This will continue to have a negative impact on the prevalence of insect pests and diseases. This review focuses on the climatic factors that impact on insect pests and diseases of vegetable crops. High atmospheric temperatures and elevated carbon dioxide increases pest development, survival of pests and distribution of pest to new areas. The distribution of insect pests and diseases are not due to climate changes only but are also a result of globalisation and poor biosecurity measures at country borders. There is limited information on the distribution of pests and diseases due to globalisation in African countries. New exotic pests will continue to be introduced to countries if biosecurity measures are not improved. Future research must focus on how to manage emerging pests and diseases influenced by high temperatures and carbon dioxide and other climatic conditions which influence pest severity under smallholder farmers in the southern African regions.

Toxoplasmosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) of Borana zone, Oromia region, Ethiopia: seroprevalence and risk factors.

Toxoplasmosis is one of the most prevalent parasitic infections of medical and veterinary importance. A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2013 to January 2014 to estimate the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in camels from four districts of Borana zone, Southern Oromia, Ethiopia. In addition, a questionnaire survey was administered to 124 pastoralists to identify possible risk factors and to assess the awareness level of pastoral communities about toxoplasmosis. A total of 396 serum samples were examined for anti-Toxoplasma IgG antibodies using the direct agglutination test (DAT). Fisher's exact test and logistic regression were used for data analysis. An overall seroprevalence of 8.33% (95% confidence interval [CI] 5.60%, 11.07%) at animal-level and 37.5% (95% CI: 20.1%, 57.4%) at herd-level was found. The seroprevalence was significantly high in Moyale district (23.07%) followed by Yabello (7.20%), Dirre (3.77%), and Arero (0.0%) districts (P < 0.001). Multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed that the likelihood of acquiring T. gondii infection was significantly higher in camels of Moyale district (adjusted OR = 5.89, 95% CI 2.15, 16.12; P = 0.001) than Dirre district, in camels of >8years old (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 4.95, 95% CI 1.68, 14.55; P = 0.004) than camels of ≤4years old. There was no significant association between herd-level seroprevalence of T. gondii infection and abortion history, herd size, and presence of domestic cats and wild felids (P > 0.05). The majority of interviewees were uneducated (82.25%), and all had no knowledge of toxoplasmosis. All camel herders drink raw camel milk but consume cooked meat (90.32%). Of the interviewees, 93.06% are aware about soil-eating habit of camels and provide salt supplement for their camels. Majority of the respondents practice improper disposal of aborted materials (throw along the way) (88.70%), and 73% of the study participants do not wash their hands after handling aborted fetus. The results of the present study confirm relatively lower prevalence of T. gondii infection in camels reared in Borana zone. Age and study district are significant predictors of T. gondii seropositivity. The vast majorities of interviewed pastoralists were uneducated and practice poor biosecurity measures to prevent diseases. Education of pastoralists about biosecurity measures to prevent toxoplasmosis and further studies are warranted to unravel the economic and public health consequences of T. gondii infection.

Identifying risk factors of avian infectious diseases at household level in Poyang Lake region, China

Poultry kept in backyard farms are susceptible to acquiring and spreading infectious diseases because of free ranging and poor biosecurity measures. Since some of these diseases are zoonoses, this is also a significant health concern to breeders and their families. Backyard farms are common in rural regions of China. However, there is lack of knowledge of backyard poultry in the country. To obtain first-hand information of backyard poultry and identify risk factors of avian infectious diseases, a cross-sectional study was carried out at household level in rural regions around Poyang Lake.A door-to-door survey was conducted to collect data on husbandry practices, trading practices of backyard farmers, and surrounding environments of backyard farms. Farms were categorized into cases and controls based on their history of poultry death. Data were collected for 137 farms, and the association with occurrence of poultry death event was explored by chi-square tests. Results showed that vaccination implementation was a protective factor (odds ratio OR=0.40, 95% confidence interval CI: 0.20–0.80, p=0.01), while contact with other backyard flocks increased risk (OR=1.72, 95% CI: 0.79–3.74, p=0.16). A concept of “farm connectivity” characterized by the density of particular land-use types in the vicinity of the farm was proposed to characterize the degree of contact between poultry in one household farm and those in other household farms. It was found that housing density in a 20-m buffer zone of the farmhouse was most significantly associated with poultry death occurrence (OR=1.08, 95% CI: 1.02–1.17, p=0.03), and was in agreement with observation of villagers. Binary logistic regression was applied to evaluate the relationship between poultry death event and density of land-use types in all buffer zones. When integrated with vaccination implementation for poultry, prediction accuracy of poultry death event reached 72.0%.Results combining questionnaire survey with geographical approaches indicated that occurrence of poultry death event among backyard farms within a village was heavily impacted by farm connectivity. This study provides new insight for the study and help to develop more targeted prevention and countermeasure in a typical rural environment of China.

Assessment of biosecurity practices of small-scale broiler producers in central Egypt

In the current situation of endemicity of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in Egypt, improving the biosecurity of poultry production has become essential to the progressive reduction the incidence of the disease. A significant proportion of the Egyptian commercial poultry system consists of small-scale poultry producers operating with low to minimal biosecurity measures. An investigation was conducted into the level of adoption of standard biosecurity measures of the small-scale commercial chicken growers, including both farm- and home-based commercial production, input suppliers and other actors along the meat chicken value chain in Fayoum, Egypt. The study which used direct observations and group discussions of nearly 160 participants and structured interviews with 463 respondents, assessed biosecurity implementation to improve management practices and ultimately to control and prevent highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI). The survey found that overall, biosecurity measures are rarely implemented in small-scale commercial poultry production units. Compliance with recommended biosecurity practices did not greatly vary from home-based to farm-based commercial production. Furthermore, serious risk practices were identified, such as unsafe disposal of poultry carcasses and potential disease spread posed by poor biosecurity measures implemented during vaccination. HPAI control measures have been ineffective due to limited cooperation between public and private sector, aggravated by the unpopular measures taken in the event of outbreaks and no compensation paid for incurred losses. Outreach and biosecurity awareness raising initiatives should be specifically developed for small-scale producers with the objective of improving general poultry management and thus preventing HPAI and other poultry diseases.

Epizootical characteristics of Aujeszky's disease in Vojvodina region and biosecurity concernes

Aujeszky's disease (Morbus Aujeszky, pseudorabies) is an acute, contagious viral disease, of wide range of domestic and wild-life species. Morbus Aujeszky (MA) is considered as one of the most important infectious diseases, that affect swine production and became a discriminatory factor at the international pig market. The infection in all other animal species except pigs is acute in course and inevitably fatal. The data for this research were taken from several different sources: Epizootiological Reports of Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management, Statistical Year Book of Serbia. Also, historical, clinical and epizootiological data were obtained through questionnaire that was sent to farm owners, practicing veterinarians, veterinary inspectors and regional epizootiologists. Significant information were collected through direct epizootical surveillance on the field that encompassed anamnestic, clinical and pathological investigation as well as laboratory diagnostic by virus isolation and serological testing. The purpose of this investigation was to estimate epizootical status of Vojvodina Province concerning MA occurrence in different domestic and wild life species, the possible routes of infection and spreading the disease. The role of various biosecurity measures in prevention and control of MA outbreaks was also studied. The results of our investigation revealed that swine population in Vojvodina region is enzootically infected with MA, and that infection was detected in six different animal species, sporadically or in enzootic form. The single most important factor for MA occurrence was the localization of the farm in the high density pig population regions. Poor biosecurity measures to prevent entry of the virus, and lack of appropriate measures to stop the spreading of the infection within the herd were also idenifyed. The direct contact with pigs, or ingestion of raw and poorly cooked swine products was the estimated route of infection for all other affected animals except three dogs.

On-farm multi-contamination of pigs by food-borne bacterial zoonotic hazards: An exploratory study

Application of risk analysis to control pork-borne zoonoses on farms is a major aim of the current European food safety legislation. The prevalence, levels of contamination and variations in pig contaminations according to herds and batches must therefore be studied to define relevant methods for control of zoonoses. The aims of this exploratory study were to provide information on the prevalence and levels of infection of finisher/fattening pigs by Campylobacter spp., Clostridium perfringens, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica and Staphylococcus aureus, and to quantify the respective effects of batches and herds. One hundred and twenty-seven pooled fresh feces samples and 120 pooled cutaneous swab samples were tested from 37 batches in 14 farrowing-to-finishing farms. Campylobacter spp. was identified in all fecal samples on farms whereas L. monocytogenes was never found. C. perfringens was identified in 48% of samples, Salmonella in 2%, and S. aureus in 48%. The decomposition of variance of on-farm prevalence and levels of contamination and a general linear model showed a systematically significant effect of herd, and an effect of batch only for levels of contamination with Campylobacter and C. perfringens and for prevalence of S. aureus. The contamination status of pigs seems to be mainly explained by herd status linked to poor biosecurity measures. Further studies are needed to explain such correlations in order to define farm indicators for food-borne zoonotic hazards.

Herd factors associated with the seroprevalences of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae serovars 2, 3 and 9 in slaughter pigs from farrow-to-finish pig herds

This cross-sectional epidemiologic study was conducted in 150 randomly selected farrow-to-finish pig herds to investigate descriptive epidemiological characteristics of infections with three different serovars of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, and to identify risk factors for the within-herd seroprevalences of these serovars. Different farm characteristics (n = 28) were examined as potential risk factors for the percentage of pigs with antibodies against serovars 2, 3 and 9. The presence of antibodies was measured using an indirect ELISA. Logistic regression analyses were used to assess the associations between the potential risk factors and the proportion of seropositive pigs. The median within-herd seroprevalences were 95% (range: 0-100%), 100% (range: 10-100%), and 35% (range: 0-100%) for serovars 2, 3, and 9, respectively. There was a positive association (P < 0.001) between each of these serovars. The within-herd seroprevalence of serovar 2 was significantly higher in farms that purchased gilts from > or = 2 origin herds (OR = 2.33; P < 0.05) and in farms with poor biosecurity measures (OR = 4.62; P < 0.05). The proportion of pigs seropositive for serovar 3 was significantly higher when tested pigs were slaughtered in May-August and in November-December (OR = 5.96; P < 0.001), in herds without a growing unit (OR = 2.63; P < 0.01), and in herds with a direct air-entry into the finishing unit (OR = 1.92; P < 0.05). The within-herd seroprevalence of serovar 9 increased significantly in herds with poor biosecurity measures (OR = 1.76; P < 0.05). The study documented that infections with A. pleuropneumoniae serovars 2, 3, and 9 were very common in the selected herds, and that the sero-epidemiological characteristics and risk factors showed some variation depending on the serovar. The purchase policy of gilts and biosecurity measures are risk factors that can be improved fairly easily on pig farms.

Non-infectious factors associated with macroscopic and microscopic lung lesions in slaughter pigs from farrow-to-finish herds

A cross-sectional epidemiological study was conducted in 150 randomly selected farrow-to-finish herds to investigate which non-infectious factors might act as risk indicators for the prevalence and severity of macroscopic and...