Polyvinyl Chloride Packaging Research Articles

Intravenous hypertonic fluids as a source of human microplastic exposure

This study investigates the presence of microplastics (MPs) in hypertonic fluid solutions, a widely used medical treatment packaged predominantly in plastic. For this purpose, in this study, 13 hypertonic fluid samples from different brands and two different types of packaging (polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride) were analyzed using visual particle counting, µ-Raman microscopy and ATR-FTIR. The results reveal the pervasive presence of MPs in all samples, with an estimated average concentration of 62.82 ± 72.38 MPs/1000 mL. There was no statistically significant difference in MP concentration between PP and PVC packaging. The particles predominantly consisted of fragments (74.1%) and fibers (25.9%), ranging in size from 0.04 to 2.37 mm. µ-Raman analysis identified 12 synthetic polymers as well as cellulose, with polyethylene and cellulose being the most prevalent.In conclusion, this study underscores the alarming presence of MPs in hypertonic fluid solutions, raising concerns about potential health risks.

Method for predicting the dissemination of hazardous substances in the soil during long-term storage of galvanic waste

The problem of production waste storage in open areas of an enterprise with a galvanic shop for the production of chips and microchips has been investigated. The composition of the sludge obtained after sewage treatment of the production of the copper line was investigated.
 The aim of the article is to develop a mathematical model for predicting the distribution of compounds with heavy metals in the soil during long-term storage of galvanic sludge in open areas. Modeling the process of movement of salts from the earth's surface into the lower layers of the aeration zone occurs according to the laws of molecular diffusion. The method is developed on the basis of a mathematical model that makes it possible to estimate the spread over the depth of the ground and level of soil salinity over time using initial information about soil structure and its characteristics (molecular diffusion coefficient, volume humidity), annual volumes and conditions of sludge storage in the enterprise. Restrictions are set: the presence of harmful substances on the soil surface with a concentration that exceeds the permissible level; inadmissibility of harmful substances to aquifers.
 The practical use of the method made it possible to identify the main dangers during long-term storage of galvanic waste in open areas. The dynamics of soil salinity levels and the depth of penetration of heavy metals increase over twenty years of conservation has been determined, as well as the possibility of hazardous compounds entering groundwater has been assessed.
 Polyvinyl chloride packaging has a maximum life span of 15 years. Waste should not be stored in packages and in closed areas for more than 10 years. According to the prediction results, it can be stated that storage in landfills of galvanic waste for more than 15 years leads to significant salinization of the soil and creates conditions for an emergency situation, which is caused by harmful substances entering the water horizons.
 Recommendations for improving storage conditions are given and the need for recycling of industrial waste is substantiated

The alleviation of cold-stimulated flesh reddening in ‘Friar’ plum fruit by the elevated CO2 with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) packaging

Flesh reddening (FR) is considered as one of the most important chilling injury (CI) symptoms of ‘Friar’ plums. The effect of different modified atmosphere packages on FR of ‘Friar’ plums was investigated and it was found that polyvinyl chloride (PVC) packaging could effectively alleviate FR. Especially, complete suppression of FR by PVC packaging was achieved during storage at 0 °C for 8 weeks and shelf life at 25 °C for 7 days following 4 weeks of storage. PVC packaging altered atmosphere components and completely inhibited cold-induced ethylene production in ‘Friar’ plums. The PVC-packaged plums lowered accumulation of metabolites and decreased activities of enzymes associated with the phenylpropanoids pathway and the anthocyanins biosynthesis. As a result, cyanidin 3-O-glucoside and cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside, two red pigments, failed to accumulate in the flesh of the PVC-packaged plums. Collectively, PVC packaging improved quality and alleviated CI of ‘Friar’ plums during refrigeration and shelf life.

Evaluation of Plastic Packaging for Prevention of Damage to Wheat by Trogoderma granarium (Coleoptera: Dermestidae), and Suitability of Phosphine Fumigation

We evaluated 4 types of plastic packaging containing whole wheat grains for damage to packaging in the form of scratches (damage through which insects cannot enter packages), holes (damage through which insects can enter packages), and penetrations (insects entering the packaging through holes) by Trogoderma granarium (Everts) (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) during the third and fourth instars. The plastic packaging used in this study was opaque polyethylene (high density), polypropylene, transparent polyethylene (low density), and polyvinylchloride with thicknesses of 0.021, 0.023, 0.026, and 0.036 mm, respectively. After 90 d, damage (scratches) was common with polypropylene and transparent polyethylene packaging, less so with opaque polyethylene, and no damage was found with polyvinylchloride packaging. Holes were more frequent in polypropylene, followed by opaque polyethylene, but none in the other forms of packaging. Insect penetrations were more frequent in opaque polyethylene, followed by polypropylene, but none in other forms of packaging. We also determined the number of damaged grains, weight of damaged grains, number of undamaged grains, weight of undamaged grains, weight of frass, and percent weight loss of grains caused by insects in the aforementioned types of packaging, and compared this with a fifth treatment consisting of open (unpackaged) grains infested by T. granarium larvae. We found that there was more damage to grain, greater weight loss of damaged grain, greater weight of frass, and higher percentage of weight loss of grains in unpackaged wheat, followed by opaque polyethylene and polypropylene, but not in transparent polyethylene or polyvinylchloride packaging. Microphotography after 90 d to measure the lengths of openings showed the maximum lengths in scratches and holes in opaque polyethylene, followed by polypropylene, although scratches in transparent polyethylene did not have openings for measurement. Following this, the types of packaging that were resistant to damage, i.e., transparent polyethylene and polyvinylchloride, were evaluated further for phosphine fumigation efficacy in terms of mortality of T. granarium. Fumigation results showed that in 24 h more larval mortality occurred in transparent polyethylene than in polyvinyl chloride, making transparent polyethylene overall a better foodstuff packaging material for protection from T. granarium.

Effects of Packaging, Antioxidants, and Nadh on Ground Beef Color and Oxidation Reduction Potential

ObjectivesColor is the most important indicator of freshness to consumers and drives their decision to purchase meat. Previous studies have indicated that lipid oxidation products can decrease activity of enzymes involved in NADH regeneration and metmyoglobin reduction. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of oil- and water-soluble rosemary and NADH on ground beef color and oxidation reduction potential (ORP) properties in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and high-oxygen modified atmosphere packaging (HiOx-MAP).Materials and MethodsFresh course ground beef (81% lean) chubs were purchased on the day of preparation from a local retail store. Each chub was divided into twelve 100 g sections. Twelve treatments were randomly assigned to 100 g sections. Treatments included PVC and HiOx-MAP (80% oxygen and 20% carbon dioxide) controls (without added ingredients), NADH added patties in PVC and HiOx-MAP, oil- and water-soluble rosemary in PVC and HiOx-MAP with- and without NADH. The oil- and water-soluble rosemary were added at 0.2% and NADH was added as a positive control at 1 µg/g of ground beef. Following ingredient addition, each 100 g section was mixed for 30 s, fine ground, and formed into a patty (thickness 1.4 cm, diameter 10.5 cm). All patties were placed in dark for 24 h at 2°C, then displayed under continuous fluorescent lighting (retail display) at 4°C for 3 d. Surface color (a* value) of all the patties were taken on d 0, 1, 2, and 3, of display using a Hunter Lab Miniscan EZ spectrophotometer. Thiobarbituric acid assay (TBARS) for lipid oxidation and ORP were measured on the day of preparation, 0, and 3-d display. The experiment was replicated 6 times and the data were analyzed using the Mixed Procedure of SAS (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC) and the significance was determined at P < 0.05.ResultsThere was a significant packaging by ingredients interaction for surface redness (a* values), TBARS values, and ORP. Oil-soluble rosemary with NADH had less discoloration (P < 0.05; d 2 a* value = 23.8 ± 0.8) than other treatments. Water- and oil-based rosemary in combination with NADH had greater (P < 0.05) red color than NADH alone. NADH was used as a positive control to donate electron for metmyoglobin reduction. Addition of water- and oil-soluble rosemary increased (P < 0.05) ORP, but not NADH (P > 0.05). Patties packaged in HiOx-MAP had a lower reduction potential than PVC packaging. Oxidation reduction potential (ORP) measures the net balance between total oxidants and total reductants in a biological system.ConclusionThe current research indicates that limiting lipid oxidation will help to utilize NADH more efficiently for improved color stability and MRA.

Evaluation of Standard Loose Plastic Packaging for the Management of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) and Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebriondiae).

Three standard foodstuff plastic packaging namely polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyvinylchloride (PVC) were evaluated for management of lesser grain borer Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) and red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Resistance parameters in packaging were recorded as punctures, holes, penetrations, sealing defects, and invasions with two thicknesses and tested for two lengths of time. Damages like punctures, holes and penetrations by both insects were more in PE packaging however R. dominica made more penetrations in PP than in PE. For both insects sealing defects and invasions were predominant in PVC than in others. Thickness did not affect significantly damage types but significantly more holes and penetrations by R. dominica were in less thickness. Punctures and holes by R. dominica were more after less time period but other damages in packaging were more after more time period. However for T. castaneum all sorts of damages were seen more after more time period. Overall categorization between two insects showed R. dominica made more penetrations and T. castaneum made more invasions compared with their counterparts. Pictures were taken under camera fitted microscope to magnify punctures and holes in different packaging and thicknesses. Insect mortality due to phosphine was more in PP and PE packaging and least in PVC packaging and thickness effect was marginal. T. castaneum mortality was significantly more after 48 h than after 24 h. Damages extent in packaging and fumigation results showed PP to be the best of three packaging materials to manage these insects.

Extended producer responsibility: a differential fee model for promoting sustainable packaging

Extended producer responsibility in the European Union has been shown to be incapable of promoting environmentally friendly packaging, mainly because of the economic instrument used: the producer fee. To make the producer fee capable of both reflecting and influencing how packaging is produced, we propose a mathematical model for calculating a differential fee (the sustainable producer fee or SPF). The development of the model involves the following steps: the selection of sustainability criteria, the aggregation of criteria using multi-criteria decision making, the formulation of the SPF calculation, and the generation of a web-based interface for packers and product importers to calculate the differential fee applying to their own packaging. The aspects of sustainability considered are environmental aspects resulting mostly from life cycle assessment (e.g., global warming and human toxicity), and social aspects related to environmental information present in/on the packaging (e.g., the recycling bin symbol and carbon footprint information). The mathematical model developed uses the sustainability results provided by the multi-criteria decision making. The fee is higher than the current fixed fee (200.8 €/t) if the level of sustainability is low, that is, if environmental and social impacts are negative, and is lower if the level of sustainability is high. The lowest value of the fee in the sensitivity analysis, 191.89 €/t, was calculated for polyethylene packaging containing 10% of incorporated recycled material, with this recycling information being present in the packaging along with carbon footprint information and the recycling symbol. The highest value, 218.69 €/t, was calculated for polyvinyl chloride packaging without any recycled material and without any environmental information. The model is implemented in a web-based interface, where packers and product importers are able to simulate different types of packaging to reduce the fee. The success of the approach is discussed, as is the potential for changing the packaging behavior of packers and importers and for increasing the level of sustainability of packaging in the near future.

Determination of 46 plasticizers in food contact polyvinyl chloride packaging materials and their migration into food simulants by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method was developed for the determination of 46 plasticizers in food contact polyvinyl chloride (PVC) packaging materials and their migration into food simulants, i. e. water, 3% acetic acid, 10% ethanol and olive oil. Plasticizers in the PVC packaging materials, aqueous food simulants and olive oil food simulants were extracted by the dissolution-precipitation, liquid-liquid extraction and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) approaches, respectively. The extracts were analyzed by GC-MS in selective ion monitoring (SIM) mode and quantified using the external standard method. The cal-ibration curves were linear in the ranges of 0.1-2.0 mg/L with the correlation coefficients of 0.9910-0. 999 9. The limits of detection were from 0. 005 mg/kg to 0. 05 mg/kg ( S/N = 5 ). The recoveries at 3 spiked levels were 69.51%-107. 21% and the relative standard deviations (RSDs n = 6) ranged from 3.53% to 18.95%. These results show that this method is fast, sensitive and accurate for the qualitative and quantitative determination of plasticizers in food contact plastic products and 4 types of food simulants.

EFFECT OF PACKAGING AND STORAGE TIME ON BEEF QUALITATIVE AND MICROBIAL TRAITS

ABSTRACT The effect of polyvinyl chloride packaging (PP), vacuum packaging (VP) and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) (60% O2, 30% CO2, 10% N2) on some quality parameters and microbiological profile of beef was studied. Longissimus dorsi samples were examined at 7‐day intervals during storage at 4C ± 2C, until 21 days. pH of PP beef increased during storage, whereas in VP and MAP beef remained stable. Superficial color darkened for PP samples, remaining stable until 7 and 21 days for VP and MAP samples, respectively; internal color was not significantly influenced by either storage time and packaging methods. Water‐holding capacity was not affected by packaging methods, increasing from 7 to 21 days. VP showed lower lipid oxidation than MAP until 21 days and than PP until 14 days. Total mesophilic counts reached the threshold of 107 ufc/g after 7 days in PP and after 14 and 21 days in MAP and VP, respectively.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSThe results of this study confirmed that meat packaged in polyvinyl chloride packaging (PP) must be stored for few days to not fall into pH, color and microbiological alterations; meat packaged in modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), even though maintained appreciable superficial colorimetric characteristics, showed a high microbiological growth from 14 days of storage; meat vacuum packaged (VP), although the worst colorimetric appearance, showed the best keeping properties in terms of microbiological profile and lipid oxidation lower than MAP until 21 days of storage. Nevertheless, the fact that the internal color of meat is similar among different packaging systems, independently from time of storage, may suggest that VP system may be useful for prolonged storage of big pieces of meat.

PRELIMINARY STUDY ON QUALITATIVE AND MICROBIOLOGICAL CHANGES IN FRESH-CUT BROCCOLI RAAB DURING COLD STORAGE

Changes in atmosphere composition and colour, tissue browning, decay, microbial viable cell count and sensorial attributes of fresh cut broccoli raab were studied. Broccoli raab heads and young leaves were placed in polystyrene trays, covered with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyamide/polyethylene (PA/PE) laminated films and then stored under self controlled atmosphere (SCA) at 4°C for 16 d. Viable cell counts of packaged fresh-cut vegetables were lower than the legal limit for safe consumption until the 12 th day of storage in both PA/PE and PVC covered trays. However, after 8 and 12 d of storage, microbial counts of broccoli raab stored in PVC were approx. 2 log cfu g -1 higher than those in PA/PE. Browning was only significant in samples packaged in PA/PE, probably due to high CO 2 concentration inside the package. The results showed that PVC packaging was the best solution for fresh broccoli raab heads and young leaves stored at 4°C in SCA, leading to a shelf life of 12 d compared to 7 d if vegetables were stored in PA/PE.

Shelf-stability enhancement of precooked red claw crayfish ( Cherax quadricarinatus) tails by modified CO 2/O 2/N 2 gas packaging

Three types of packaging systems were compared for their influence on the storage stability (2 °C) of precooked and peeled red claw crayfish tails. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP; with 80%CO 2/10%O 2/10%N 2) almost totally inhibited the growth of aerobic bacteria and coliforms when compared with aerobic polyvinylchloride packaging (PVCP) and vacuum packaging (VP). MAP also prevented a pH rise, purge loss, and texture toughening or softening of stored red claw when compared with PVCP or VP ( P<0.05). Lipid oxidation was minimal in all three packaging systems. Thus, MAP offers an attractive means to preserve the shelf life of precooked red claw stored under refrigerated retail display conditions.

Biologically Active Contaminants of Intravenous Saline in PVC Packaging: Australasian, European, and North American Samples

We have previously found evidence of contaminants in 0.9% saline packaged in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) for clinical use. For this current study we asked two questions: (1) what are the organic chemical contaminants in solutions packaged in PVC? and (2) do the contaminants vary in bags manufactured in different countries? We studied samples of 0.9% saline packaged in PVC from Australasia, Europe, and North America. We analysed the saline solutions with high-resolution capillary gas chromatography - mass spectrometry. Components of the Australasian and European bags were also analysed using thermodesorption followed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. In three pairs of samples we found twenty-four different organic contaminants of the saline solutions. Diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) was found in all solutions; the concentrations were greater than 10 microg/l in the Australasian and European samples. All samples contained 2-ethyl hexanol (>50 microg/l), a DEHP breakdown product. The Australasian and North American samples contained cyclohexanone at concentrations of about 1000 microg/l. The cyclohexanone probably originated in joints at the bases of the bags. Both the Australasian and European bags contained t-butyl cyclohexanol (>500 microg/l) and t-butyl cyclohexanone (>50 microg/l). Printing ink on the outside of the bags was the most likely source for both of these contaminants. Several of the contaminants are toxic to animals. Little is known about the toxicity of combinations of contaminants.

Effects Of Compression, Stacking, Vacuum Packing and Temperature on the Migration of Bisphenol A from Polyvinyl Chloride Packaging Sheeting into Food Simulants

The effects of compression, stacking, vacuum packing and temperature on the migration of bisphenol A from polyvinyl chloride plastic sheeting into European Union food simulants (water, 3% acetic acid and olive oil), 1.5% agar, and mixtures of olive oil with various proportions of inert material (fine washed sea sand) were evaluated using previously developed methods for identification and quantitation of migrants. Compression, stacking and increasing temperature all increased migration.

The Effect of Microwave Heating on the Acidity of 0.9% Saline in 1 Litre and 100 mL Polyvinyl Chloride Packaging

The Effect of Microwave Heating on the Acidity of 0.9% Saline in 1 Litre and 100 mL Polyvinyl Chloride Packaging

Migration of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) and additives into PVC bottled drinking water

The migration of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) and plasticizers, especially adipate and phthalate esters, from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) packaging materials into bottled drinking water was investigated. The study has shown that the concentrations of VCM in various brands of bottled‐water were below 0.6 ppb, which is far below the 2 ppb maximum contamination limit set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency for VCM in drinking water. Exposure of the bottled‐water to sunlight did not result in a measurable increase in the VCM concentration levels. However, several volatile and semi‐volatile organic compounds were tentatively identified by GC‐MS in the bottled‐water after exposure to sunlight. 2,3‐Dichloro‐l‐propanol and dichloroacetic acid were the volatile compounds repeatedly identified, moreover, the presence of benzene was confirmed in some bottled‐water samples. Di‐n‐octyl adipate and bis(2‐ethylhexyl) phthalate were the major semi‐volatile organic compounds identified. Migration of these compounds were found to depend on storage time, temperature and exposure to sunlight. Di‐n‐octyl adipate and bis(2‐ethylhexyl) phthalate are widely used as plasticezers in PVC packaging materials. The results of this study suggested that all measures used to store other foodstuffs should be applied to bottled‐water to preserve its quality.

Endothelial cell response to polyvinyl chloride-packaged GORETEX: effect of surface contamination

A Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic study of polyvinyl chloride packaged GORETEX vascular prostheses indicated that their internal and external surfaces were coated with an additive layer presumed to be derived from the polyvinyl chloride packaging. This layer was not removed by washing in phosphate buffered saline but was soluble in trimethyl pentane and hexane. Some other treatments of GORETEX and the packaging were shown to remove the contaminant from the surface and this correlated with an inferior in vitro aortic endothelial cell response. Analyses of materials extracted from both the polyvinyl chloride and the GORETEX surface indicated that the major surface component was a long chain aliphatic ester, either a plasticizer or a lubricant constituent.

Capillary GC analysis of compounds leached into parenteral solutions packaged in plastic bags.

A number of investigators have reported finding the plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in plasma, urine, and parenteral solutions. These findings have been associated with the use of polyvinyl chloride packaging materials. Capillary gas chromatography--mass spectrometry, packed column gas chromatography, and high-performance liquid chromatography were used for the analyses. The screening procedure described herein accurately and quantitatively analyzes the plasticizers di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate and dibutylphthalate and some of the degradation products plus 2,6-di-tert-butyl-p-cresol and cyclohexanone. Liquid--liquid extraction followed by capillary gas chromatography is used. Linear regression analysis of standard solutions gives correlation coefficients from 0.99963 to 0.99989 for six compounds. Recoveries for these compounds vary from 84.9% to 114% with relative standard deviations ranging from 2.51% to 6.33%.

Study of the polyvinyl chloride polymer structure in relation to migration of residual vinyl chloride monomer by inverse gas chromatography

AbstractThe polyvinyl chloride (PVC) polymer structure was studied using inverse gas chromatography (IGC). The specific retention volume (Vg°) of a vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) probe, as well as the thermodynamic parameters of the interaction between PVC and VCM were calculated.Changes in Vg°, free energy(ΔG°s), enthalpy (ΔH°s) and entropy (ΔS°s) observed as the temperature and the amount of VCM decreased, clearly indicate that the PVC—VCM interaction was both concentration and temperature dependent. The Vg° and thermodynamic parameters also varied with changes in polymer structure. Data were interpreted in terms of the active site hypothesis. Active sites in the PVC matrix strongly bind VCM at low enough concentrations and temperatures. Inferably, migration of VCM from PVC packaging materials containing very low concentrations of residual monomer should be for all practical purposes, essentially zero, particularly at low temperatures.

PVC as a food packaging material

Manufacture of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in western Europe for all applications is now almost 4 m tonnes and the UK accounts for about 400 kt of this. The aim of this paper is to illustrate the relative importance of PVC as a packaging material where, in the UK for example, for food packaging it accounts for almost 40 kt (10%) of the PVC used. The different types of PVC packaging material—bottles, foil, cling film and cap sealing—and their method of manufacture are described, together with the range of food packaging applications in which they are used. The physical properties of PVC are described and, additionally, its cost and competitiveness with other materials are compared. The chemical nature of PVC compositions arising from the addition of heat stabilisers and plasticisers to achieve the desired properties is also described, with particular reference to heat stability. With the VCM toxicity issue now behind us, and PVC polymer with a maximum level of 1 ppm vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) being supplied for food packaging, PVC must be the most stringently controlled and thoroughly researched material for food packaging. Recent developments in polymerisation technology and polymer manufacture, which have enabled this level to be achieved, are briefly described. The current situation on the global migration issue, on which attention is currently focused, not only for plasticised PVC, but also other packaging materials as well, is briefly reviewed.

Headspace Sampling and Gas-Solid Chromatographic Determination and Confirmation of ≥ 1 ppb Vinyl Chloride Residues in Polyvinyl Chloride Food Packaging

Abstract The determination and confirmation of residual vinyl chloride (VC) in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) food packaging materials are described. PVC packaging materials are dissolved in dimethylacetamide (DMAC). VC is sparged from solution with helium gas and collected in sealed vials of ethanol. VC is detected and quantitated by using a headspace sampling technique and standard gas-solid chromatography (GSC) with flame ionization detection. GSC peak heights of about 5% full scale deflection are obtained for samples of PVC containing 1 ppb VC. Polymer samples taken from tubing, blood bags, food packaging films, bottles, and unprocessed resin were analyzed. Residual VC levels ranged from 0.3 to 913 ppb. VC was confirmed by GSC-mass spectrometry, using selected ion recording of m/z 62 and 64 in conjunction with full mass scans to identify components eluting near VC.