Polymer Electrodes Research Articles

Multifunctional Nanocomposite Polymer‐integrated Ca‐doped CeO2 Electrolyte for Robust and High‐rate All‐solid‐state Sodium‐ion Batteries

AbstractDue to the seamless interfaces between solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) and electrode materials, SPEs‐based all‐solid‐state sodium‐ion batteries (ASSSIBs) are considered promising energy storage systems. However, the sluggish Na+ transport and uncontrollable Na dendrite propagation still hinder the practical application of SPEs‐based ASSSIBs. Herein, Ca‐doped CeO2 (Ca−CeO2) nanotube framework is synthesized and integrated with poly (ethylene oxide) methyl ether acrylate‐perfluoropolyether copolymer (PEOA‐PFPE), resulting in multifunctional solid nanocomposite electrolytes (namely SNEs, i.e., PEOA‐PFPE/Ca−CeO2). Our investigations demonstrate that the fluorous effect incurred by the fluorine‐containing PEOA‐PFPE and the oxygen vacancy effect induced by the Ca−CeO2 framework could synergistically promote the dissociation of sodium salt, ultimately enhancing the Na+ mobility in SNEs. Besides, the resultant SNEs construct rapid Na+ transport channels and homogenize the Na deposition in SNEs/Na interface, which effectively prevents the Na dendrite growth. Furthermore, the assembled carbon‐coated sodium vanadium phosphate (NVP@C)||PEOA‐PFPE/Ca−CeO2||Na coin cell delivers impressive rate capability of 97.9 mAh g−1 at 2 C and outstanding cycling stability with capacity retention of 84.3 % after 300 cycles at 1 C. This work illustrates that constructing multifunctional SNEs via incorporating functional inorganic frameworks into fluorine‐containing SPEs could be a promising strategy for the commercialization of robust and high‐performance ASSSIBs.

High‐Efficiency Electrochemical Desalination: The Role of a Rigid Pseudocapacitive Polymer Electrode with Diverse Active Sites

AbstractHybrid capacitive deionization (HCDI) emerges as a burgeoning electrochemical desalination technology due to the utilization of profitable pseudocapacitive reactions. Although tunable organic compounds are potential faradaic electrode materials, their insufficient active sites and high water‐solubility restrict practical HCDI applications. Herein, a pseudocapacitive organic polymer (PNDS) is proposed with diverse redox‐active sites for electrochemical deionization. The pronounced molecular aromaticity and strong π‐electron delocalization not only endow PNDS polymer with framework rigidity, but refine its electronic structure to bolster redox activity and electron affinity. As an electrode material, the PNDS polymer demonstrates a substantial pseudocapacitive capacitance of 390 F g−1 and sustains long‐term stability at 96.3% after 5000 cycles, surpassing reported Na+‐capturing organic electrodes. In‐operando monitoring techniques and theoretical calculations reveal efficient Na+ capture at the C═N and C═O redox‐active sites within the PNDS electrode during repeated electrosorption processes. As a conceptual demonstration, a high‐performance HCDI device equipped with the PNDS electrode exhibits an impressive salt removal capacity (66.4 mg g−1), a rapid removal rate (2.2 mg g−1 min−1) and stable regeneration property. More importantly, an integrated desalination system is engineered to rapidly and repeatedly treat saltwater resources for human consumption and agricultural irrigation, highlighting its promising prospects for high‐efficiency desalination applications.

Molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensor based on APTES-functionalized indium tin oxide electrode for the determination of sulfadiazine.

Anelectrochemical sensor was developedfor the sensitive and selective detection of sulfadiazine(SDZ), based on a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) film formed on an indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode through a self-assembly process. The SDZ-imprinted ITO electrode (SDZ-MIP/APTES-ITO) was prepared through in situ polymerization using sulfadiazine, methacrylic acid (MAA), ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA), and 2,2'-azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) as the template, functional monomer, cross-linker, and initiator respectively. Before polymerization, the ITO electrode was functionalized with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) to promote covalent attachment of the polymer to the electrode. After polymerization, the template molecule SDZ was removed to create selective recognition sites, forming the molecularly imprinted polymer electrode (MIP/APTES-ITO), which facilitates sulfadiazine detection. The sensor's performance was evaluated using cyclic and differential pulse voltammetry, demonstrating a linear response in the sulfadiazine concentration range 0.1 to 300μM, with a detection limit of 0.11μM. The MIP-based sensor exhibited goodreproducibility, repeatability, selectivity, and stability in sulfadiazine detection. Its practical applicability was confirmed by the successful quantification of sulfadiazine in spiked milk samples.

Energetic and durable all-polymer aqueous battery for sustainable, flexible power

All-polymer aqueous batteries, featuring electrodes and electrolytes made entirely from polymers, advance wearable electronics through their processing ease, inherent safety, and sustainability. Challenges persist with the instability of polymer electrode redox products in aqueous environments, which fail to achieve high performance in all-polymer aqueous batteries. Here, we report a polymer-aqueous electrolyte designed to stabilize polymer electrode redox products by modulating the solvation layers and forming a solid-electrolyte interphase. Polyaniline is selected as an example for its dual functionality as a cathode or anode working by p/n doping mechanisms. This approach pioneers the application of polyaniline as an anode and enhances the high-voltage stability of polyaniline cathode in an aqueous electrolyte. The resulting all-polymer aqueous sodium-ion battery with polyaniline as symmetric electrodes exhibits a high capacity of 139 mAh/g, energy density of 153 Wh/kg, and a retention of over 92% after 4800 cycles. Spectroscopic characterizations have elucidated the hydration structure, solid-electrolyte interphase, and dual-ion doping mechanism. Large-scale all-polymer flexible batteries are fabricated with excellent flexibility and recyclability, heralding a paradigmatic approach to sustainable, wearable energy storage.

Enhanced Photovoltaic Performance of Poly(3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene)Poly(N-Alkylcarbazole) Copolymer-Based Counter Electrode in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Conducting polymers are emerging as promising alternatives to rare and expensive platinum for counter electrodes in dye-sensitized solar cells; due to their ease of synthesis, they can be chemically tuned and are suitable for roll-to-roll production. Among these, poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)-based counter electrodes have shown leading photovoltaic performance. However, certain conductivity issues remain that affect the effectiveness of these counter electrodes. In this study, we present an electropolymerized PEDOT and poly(N-alkylated-carbazole) copolymer as an efficient electrocatalyst for the reduction in I3− in dye-sensitized solar cells. Copolymerization with N-alkylated carbazoles significantly increases the conductivity of the polymer film and facilitates rapid charge transport at the interface between the polymer electrode and the electrolyte. The length of the alkyl substituents also plays a crucial role in this improvement. Electrochemical analysis showed a reduction in charge transport resistance from 3.31 Ω·cm2 for PEDOT to 2.26 Ω·cm2 for the PEDOT:poly(N-octylcarbazole) copolymer, which is almost half the resistance of a platinum-based counter electrode (4.12 Ω·cm2). Photovoltaic measurements showed that the solar cell with the PEDOT:poly(N-octylcarbazole) counter electrode achieved an efficiency of 8.88%, outperforming both PEDOT (7.90%) and platinum-based devices (7.57%).

Carbazole-Bearing Conjugated Microporous Polymer Electrodes for Uranium Extraction from Seawater with Good Anti-biofouling Feature

Carbazole-Bearing Conjugated Microporous Polymer Electrodes for Uranium Extraction from Seawater with Good Anti-biofouling Feature

Permeable void-free interface for all-solid-state alkali-ion polymer batteries.

All-solid-state batteries suffer from a loss of contact between the electrode and electrolyte particles, leading to poor cyclability. Here, a void-free ion-permeable interface between the solid-state polymer electrolyte and electrode is constructed in situ during cycling using charge/discharge voltage as the stimulus. During the charge-discharge, the permeation phase fills the voids at the interface and penetrates the electrode, forming strong bonds with the cathode and effectively mitigating the contact problem. Our all-solid-state potassium ion polymer batteries maintain high Coulombic efficiency more than 2000 cycles at a high operating voltage of 4.5 volt and stably cycle more than 500 cycles even at 4.6 volt. Our rational design for mitigating the contact problem is versatile, as demonstrated by the scalability of all-solid-state graphite-based polymer potassium-ion pouch cells and all-solid-state lithium-ion polymer batteries.

Multifunctional Nanocomposite Polymer-integrated Ca-doped CeO2 Electrolyte for Robust and High-rate All-solid-state Sodium-ion Batteries.

Due to the seamless interfaces between solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) and electrode materials, SPEs-based all-solid-state sodium-ion batteries (ASSSIBs) are considered promising energy storage systems. However, the sluggish Na+ transport and uncontrollable Na dendrite propagation still hinder the practical application of SPEs-based ASSSIBs. Herein, Ca-doped CeO2 (Ca-CeO2) nanotube framework is synthesized and integrated with poly (ethylene oxide) methyl ether acrylate-perfluoropolyether copolymer (PEOA-PFPE), resulting in multifunctional solid nanocomposite electrolytes (namely SNEs, i.e., PEOA-PFPE/Ca-CeO2). Our investigations demonstrate that the fluorous effect incurred by the fluorine-containing PEOA-PFPE and the oxygen vacancy effect induced by the Ca-CeO2 framework could synergistically promote the dissociation of sodium salt, ultimately enhancing the Na+ mobility in SNEs. Besides, the resultant SNEs construct rapid Na+ transport channels and homogenize the Na deposition in SNEs/Na interface, which effectively prevents the Na dendrite growth. Furthermore, the assembled carbon-coated sodium vanadium phosphate (NVP@C)||PEOA-PFPE/Ca-CeO2||Na coin cell delivers impressive rate capability of 97.9 mA h g-1 at 2 C and outstanding cycling stability with capacity retention of 84.3% after 300 cycles at 1 C. This work illustrates that constructing multifunctional SNEs via incorporating functional inorganic frameworks into fluorine-containing SPEs could be a promising strategy for the commercialization of robust and high-performance ASSSIBs.

3D-printed redox-active polymer electrode with high-mass loading for ultra-low temperature proton pseudocapacitor

The stable operation of supercapacitors at extremely low temperatures is crucial for applications in harsh environments. Unfortunately, conventional inorganic electrodes suffer from sluggish diffusion kinetics and poor cycling stability for proton pseudocapacitors. Here, a redox-active polymer poly(1,5-diaminonaphthalene) is developed and synthesized as an ultrafast, high-mass loading, and durable pseudocapacitive anode. The charge storage of poly(1,5-diaminonaphthalene) depends on the reversible coordination reaction of the C=N group with H+, which enables fast kinetics associated with surface-controlled reactions. The 3D-printed organic electrode delivers a remarkable areal capacitance (8.43 F cm–2 at 30.78 mg cm−2) and thickness-independent rate performance. Furthermore, the 3D-printed proton pseudocapacitor exhibits great low-temperature tolerance and delivers a high energy density of 0.44 mWh cm−2 at −60 °C, as well as operates well even at −80 °C. This work signifies that combining organic material design with 3D hierarchical network electrode construction can provide a promising solution for low-temperature-resistant supercapacitors.

Influences of marine biofouling on the potential responses of polymeric membrane ion-selective electrodes

Using polymeric membrane ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) for reliable long-term marine environmental observations is still a challenge due to the formation of biofilms on electrode surfaces. Unfortunately, the contributions of the specific biofilm components to sensor failure have not been studied. Herein, the influences of the specific biofilm components on the performance of the neutral carrier-based polymeric membrane ISEs are systematically investigated in terms of sensitivity, selectivity, and stability. More importantly, the spatial distributions of these foulants in the fouled sensing membrane phase are studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy for the first time to give insight into the fouling mechanisms. Three typical biochemicals (i.e., proteins, polysaccharides, microbial lipids) in biofilms are selected as the representative foulants. The poly (vinyl chloride)-based CO32--ISEs and K+-ISEs/Ca2+-ISEs have been selected as the model sensors for detection of anions and cations, respectively. Experiments show that depending on the type of the biofoulants, the adsorption of the foulants on the polymeric membrane surface and/or their extraction into the organic membrane phase could occur and induce a change in the potential responses. This study provides a deep insight into the influences of the specific biofilm components on the polymeric membrane ISEs, which is of importance for development of the polymeric membrane marine sensors with high antifouling capabilities for long-term marine monitoring.

Anion Effect on the CuII-Neocuproine Mediator and Its Electrocatalysts for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells: Polymeric Chalcogenides of PEDOT-PEDTT and [Ag2(SePh)2]n.

The synthetical methodology for the [Cu(dmp)2]2+/1+ (dmp = 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline; neocuproine) complexes has been systematically investigated by using various copper precursors, including CuCl2, Cu(NO3)2, and Cu(ClO4)2. After an anion exchange to trifluoromethanesulfonimide (TFSI), the tetra-coordinated CuII(dmp)2(TFSI)2-Cu(ClO4)2 (7.43%) outperformed the penta-coordinated CuII(dmp)2(TFSI)(NO3)-Cu(NO3)2 (4.30%) and CuII(dmp)2(TFSI)(Cl)-CuCl2. Polymeric chalcogenides, including a conducting copolymeric electrode of PEDOT-PEDTT [PEDOT = poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene); PEDTT = poly(3,4-ethylenedithiothiophene)] and a coordination polymeric electrode of silver bezeneselenolate ([Ag2(SePh)2]n; mithrene), are introduced as the electrocatalysts for [Cu(dmp)2]2+/1+ for the first time. After optimization, dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) based on carbon cloth (CC)/AgSePh-30 (10.18%) showed superior electrocatalytic ability compared to the benchmark CC/Pt (7.43%) due to numerous active sites provided by electron-donating Se atoms, high film roughness, and bottom-up 2D charge transfer routes. The DSSC based on CC/PEDTT-50 (10.38%) also outperformed CC/Pt due to numerous active sites provided by electron-donating S atoms and proper energy band structure. This work sheds light on the future design and synthesis in Cu-complex mediators and functional polymeric chalcogenides for high-performance DSSCs.

Directed crystallization of a poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) film by an iron(III) dodecyl sulfate lamellar superstructure

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS), a successfully commercialized polymeric semiconductor material, has potential as a transparent electrode in flexible electronic devices, yet has insufficient conductivity. We present the synthesis, properties, and directed crystallization of the PEDOT:dodecyl sulfate (PEDOT:DS) film. Iron(III) dodecyl sulfate (Fe(DS)3) multi-lamellar vesicles (MLVs), a new growth template, are used to synthesize and direct the growth of the PEDOT:DS film via vapor-phase polymerization of 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene to form huge PEDOT:DS co-crystal domains within the MLV superstructure. The polycrystalline film has metallic conductivity (avg. ~1.0 × 104 S cm−1), is highly transparent and mechanically durable yet flexible, and suitable for next-generation flexible electronics. These noteworthy properties are conferred by the MLV lamellar superstructure of Fe(DS)3, a selective oxidant and an efficient in situ dopant that enhances the film hydrophobicity and durability. Sophisticated MLV-type oxidants are foreseen to enable the synthesis of more conductive, transparent, robust, flexible, and water-stable polymer electrode materials in future.

Indole-3-Carbinol Upconversion with Copper Oxide Nanoparticles Supported Graphitic Carbon Nitride: A Sustainable Approach

Electro-organic chemistry offers a sustainable and efficient approach to organic synthesis by utilizing electrochemical processes. This field has gained significant attention due to its potential for minimizing waste, reducing energy consumption, and enabling selective transformations. Herein, we report the development of a graphitic carbon nitride-coated carbon fiber electrode modified with electropolymerized amino-2-thiazole and electrodeposited Cu2O nanoparticles from copper nitrate trihydrate for the oxidation of Indole-3-carbinol (IC). Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy studies were carried out to characterize the developed electrode. Cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and bulk electrolysis techniques were employed for the electrochemical studies. The enhanced electrochemical activity of the Cu2O-pAT-GCN-TCFP electrode compared to the individual GCN and polymer electrode was studied using electrochemical characterization, which revealed a 3-fold increase in the current response for Cu2O-pAT-GCN-TCFP (0.0011 A) compared to the bare electrode. The reaction was carried out using an aqueous carbonate buffer solution as an electrolyte via bulk electrolysis at a set potential of 0.82 V. The product obtained was isolated by column chromatography to obtain a yield of 74% and characterized by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) spectroscopy. Additionally, the Cu2O-pAT-GCN-TCFP electrode was studied for its stability, reproducibility, and selectivity.

Machine learning-powered performance monitoring of proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers for enhancing green hydrogen production as a sustainable fuel for aviation industry

Aviation is a major contributor to transportation carbon emissions but aims to reduce its carbon footprint. Sustainable and environmentally friendly green hydrogen fuel is essential for decarbonization of this industry. Using the extremely low temperature of liquid hydrogen in aviation sector unlocks the opportunity for cryo-electric aircraft concept, which exploits the advantageous properties of superconductors onboard. A significant barrier for green hydrogen adoption relates to its high cost and the immediate need for large-scale production, which Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolyzers (PEMWE) can address through optimal dynamic performance, high lifetimes, good efficiencies, and importantly, scalability. In PEMWE the cell is a crucial component that facilitates the electrolysis process and consists of a polymer membrane and electrodes. To control the required production rate of hydrogen, the output power of cell should be monitored which usually is done by measuring the cell’s potential and current density. In this paper, five different machine learning (ML) models based on different algorithms have been developed to predict this parameter. Findings of the work highlight that the model based on Cascade-Forward Neural Network (CFNN) is investigated to accurately predict the cell potential of PEMWE under different anodic material and working conditions with an accuracy of 99.998 % and 0.001884 in terms of R2 and root mean square error, respectively. It can predict the cell potential with a relative error of less than 0.65 % and an absolute error of below 0.01 V. The Standard deviation of 0.000061 for 50 iterations of stability analysis indicated that this model has less sensitivity to the random selection of training data. By accurately estimating different cell’s output with one model, and considering its ultra-fast response, CFNN model has the potential to be used for both monitoring and the designing purposes of green hydrogen production.

Mechanism of chloride modification ambipolar polymer electrode materials for high-performance energy storage device

Ambipolar conducting polymer electrode materials exhibit a wide voltage window, contributing to fast development of high-energy–density storage devices. The doping levels of p-doped and n-doped in ambipolar conducting polymers determine the electrochemical performance of energy storage devices. However, n-doped materials always face low doping efficiency, caused by difficulty in electron injection and ion migration, thereby affecting specific capacitance and stability. In this study, two ambipolar conductive polymers were developed, in which the n-doped imine group was chlorinated to improve electron injection, and the mechanism of ion migration process was studied by changing the chlorination of different positions relative to the carbonyl group. The influence of chloride modification on n-doped electrochemical energy storage was thoroughly investigated. The results show that chloride modification can lower the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy level of the monomer and make electron injection easier. Interestingly, the chloride modification position not only affects the oxidation–reduction of the carbonyl, but also the binding of the carbonyl with lithium ions. If the chloride modification position is too close to the carbonyl, lithium-ion migration in ambipolar conducting polymer will be restricted, although electron injection is beneficial. Based on this design, the developed PEPCl conducting polymer exhibits excellent electrochemical performance, and the mechanism of chlorination modification of ambipolar polymer electrode materials is described.

Porous Polymeric Electrodes for Electrochemical Carbon Dioxide Capture.

Carbon capture is a promising technology to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions to achieve net carbon neutrality. Electro-swing reactive adsorption has emerged as an attractive approach for sustainable decarbonization. However, current electrodes with limited gas transport present a major barrier that hinders their practical implementation. Herein, porous polymeric electrodes are developed to effectively enhance CO2 transport without the need for additional gas diffusion conduits. Such all-in-one porous electrodes also enable more accessible redox active sites (e.g., quinones) for CO2 sorption, leading to an increased materials utilization efficiency of ≈90%. A continuous flow-through carbon capture and release operation with high Faradaic efficiency and excellent stability under practical working conditions is further demonstrated. Together with low cost and robust mechanical properties, the as-developed porous polymeric electrodes highlight the potential to advance the future implementation of electrochemical separation technologies.

Tensile-endurable nanolayered polypyrrole templated by liquid crystal for high-performance stretchable supercapacitors

Ordered architectures favorable for energy storage are hard to build and preserve on stretchable electrodes owing to the elongation-induced variation in morphology. Herein, we demonstrate the construction of nanolayered polypyrrole (PPy) on stretchable polymeric electrodes via lyotropic liquid crystal (LLC) template for the first time. In situ graft polymerization of PPy onto swollen polyacrylamide-co-poly(2-hydroxy ethyl acrylate) in an aqueous Lα LLC gives stretchable electrodes with nanolayered PPy rooted in expandable wrinkles. The nanolayered PPy electrode could be stretched up to 330 % strain and keep intact after 2,000 stretch-release cycles owing to reversible unfolding of wrinkles. By virtue of the well-arranged PPy nanolayers, the stretchable electrode exhibits a high electrical conductivity of 154 S cm−1 and gives a capacitance of 1143 mF cm−2 after assembled into a supercapacitor with H2SO4 polyacrylamide hydrogel. In addition, the capacitance retention remains 94.6 % after 2,000 stretch-release cycles accompanied by galvanostatic charge–discharge. The LLC templating graft polymerization of conjugated polymers on elastic substrates paves a way to develop nanostructured stretchable electrodes for high-performance wearable supercapacitors.

Behavior of Polymer Electrode PEDOT:PSS/Graphene on Flexible Substrate for Wearable Biosensor at Different Loading Modes.

In recent years, flexible and wearable biosensor technologies have gained significant attention due to their potential to revolutionize healthcare monitoring. Among the various components involved in these biosensors, the electrode material plays a crucial role in ensuring accurate and reliable detection. In this regard, polymer electrodes, such as Poly(3,4 ethylenedioxythiophene): poly(styrenesulfonate), combined with graphene (PEDOT:PSS/graphene), have emerged as promising candidates due to their unique mechanical properties and excellent electrical conductivity. Understanding the mechanical behavior of these polymer electrodes on flexible substrates is essential to ensure the stability and durability of wearable biosensors. In this paper, PEDOT:PSS/graphene composite was spray-coated on flexible substrates at different growth conditions to explore the effect of the deposition parameters and mode of mechanical loading (longitudinal or transversal) on the electrical and mechanical behavior of the fabricated samples. It was found that the coating grown at lower temperatures and higher spraying pressure exhibited stable behavior no matter the applied stress type.

3,6-Dimethoxythieno[3,2-b]thiophene-Based Bifunctional Electrodes for High-Performance Electrochromic Supercapacitors Prepared by One-Step Electrodeposition.

An integrated visual energy system consisting of conjugated polymer electrodes is promising for combining electrochromism with energy storage. In this work, we obtained copolymer bifunctional electrodes poly(3,6-dimethoxythieno[3,2-b]thiophene-co-2,3-dihydrothieno[3,4-b][1,4]dioxin-3-ylmethanol)(P(TT-OMe-co-EDTM)) by one-step electrochemical copolymerization, which exhibits favorable electrochromic and capacitive energy storage properties. Because of the synergistic effect of PTT-OMe and PEDTM, the prepared copolymers show better flexibility. Moreover, the morphology and electrochemical properties of the copolymers could be adjusted by depositing different molar ratios of 3,6-dimethoxythieno[3,2-b]thiophene (TT-OMe) and 2,3-dihydrothieno[3,4-b][1,4] dioxin-3-ylmethanol (EDTM). The P(TT-OMe-co-EDTM) electrodes realized a high specific capacitance (190 F/g at 5 mV/s) and recognizable color conversion. This work provides a novel and simple way to synergistically improve electrochromic and energy storage properties and develop thiophene-based conducting polymers for electrochromic energy storage devices.

An investigation of the electrical dynamics in electroactive polymer transducers with resistive electrodes

To pursue a variable-capacitance working principle, transducers based on soft electroactive polymers (EAPs) need deformable electrodes that match the compliance and stretchability of the EAP polymeric substrates. A variety of manufacturing procedures are available to create conductive materials that can achieve this, including solutions that can provide remarkably low resistivity. However, the simplest and most feasible options often involve the use of particle-filled (e.g. carbon-filled) polymer composites, which, while easy to produce, tend to exhibit relatively high resistivity. This high level of resistivity, combined with the inherent capacitance of EAP transducers, introduces dynamic effects in the devices electrical activation, which may affect performance. This paper investigates the impact of electrode resistivity on the electrical dynamics of EAP devices, combining continuum models and experimental validations. We use a continuum generalisation of known resistive-capacitive (RC) transmission line models to accurately predict voltage gradients on the surfaces of electrostatic transducers subject to rapidly varying voltages. We then present an experimental validation by measuring the spatial voltage distributions over carbon-based polymeric electrodes of dielectric elastomer (DE) transducers, and find a good agreement with our model predictions. We use our validated model to provide general estimates of the typical charging time and limit working frequency ranges of DE devices as a function of their dimensional scale and electrode sheet resistance. Our model provides useful indications for designing compliant electrodes in EAP transducers given target performance, or to understand the working limits of devices with given geometry and dielectric-electrode properties.