Polyester Bottle Research Articles

Recycling of polyester bottle waste to generate functional acid dye in situ on wool

AbstractNowadays, waste management is gaining popularity to reduce the environmental impact made by human beings. There is a dire need to decrease the pollution caused by plastic materials. A gradual rise in the demand for polyester bottles has generated a need to recycle these materials. In the present work, an aromatic amine (4,4′‐(1,4‐phenylenebis(1,3,4‐oxadiazole‐5,2‐diyl)) dianiline) was prepared from the polyester bottle waste. The successful synthesis and chemical structure of the amine was confirmed by various characterization techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR), and 13C NMR. The amine was diazotized and coupled with H‐acid (4‐amino‐5‐hydroxy‐2,7‐naphthalene disulfonic acid)‐treated wool fabric to generate acid dye in situ on the fabric. The coloration (L*, a*, b*, and K/S) and fastness properties of dyed wool were evaluated, and the samples were further analyzed for antibacterial and UV‐protective properties. The dyed wool was also characterized by FTIR to confirm the presence of the aromatic group of the dye. The introduction of dye structure on the wool increased the thermal stability of the fabric, which was confirmed through thermogravimetric analysis analysis. Antibacterial activity (>70%) and excellent UV protection were retained by dyed wool after 20 washes. Furthermore, the dyed wool was found nontoxic under the cytotoxicity evaluation test.

Advancements in the Evolution of Engineering Characteristics and Reinforcement Technologies for Subgrade Silt.

Technical challenges associated with the treatment of silt subgrades frequently arise in coastal and river delta areas. Given the importance of environmental sustainability, the selection of efficient, cost-effective, and eco-friendly techniques for silt subgrade stabilization is paramount. While recycled polyester fibers primarily sourced from discarded polyester bottles have not yet been systematically employed in silt subgrade reinforcement, their potential is considerable. This paper offers a comprehensive review of the existing literature on the microstructural, physicochemical, and mechanical properties of silt, summarizing prior advancements in silt stabilization methodologies. Building upon this foundation, we introduce a novel approach utilizing recycled polyester fibers for silt subgrade improvement, outlining both its application prospects and challenges, which require further investigation. The findings of this study serve as a robust scientific foundation for the broader adoption and engineering implementation of this technology.

Reinforcement of Silty Soil via Regenerated Fiber Polymer: A Study on Microscopic Mechanisms.

Utilizing regenerated polyester fibers (RPFs) for the reinforcement of silty road bases not only enhances the soil's engineering performance but also offers a sustainable method for repurposing waste polyester bottles. To investigate the engineering properties and microscopic behaviors of this reinforced silty soil, a series of extensive physico-mechanical tests were conducted, supplemented by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analyses. These evaluations focused on the influence of variables such as fiber content, fiber length, moisture content, and curing duration on the modified soil's performance. The fiber content of the test was 0-1%, and the fiber length was 6-17 mm. The results indicate that curing age had a less significant impact on liquid and plastic limits than the addition of fiber, along with a marginal decline in the plasticity index over time. The rate of shrinkage in the unmodified soil was between 1.04 and 1.45 times higher than that in the fiber-reinforced soil, indicating effective shrinkage control by the fibers. However, variations in maximum dry density (ρdmax) were insignificant across different fiber contents, while a slight increase was observed in the optimum moisture content (OMC) as fiber dosage increased. After a 28-day curing period, the resilient modulus and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) met highway road base design standards. A decline in unconfined compressive strength was noted when the fiber dosage exceeded 0.2%. The addition of fibers mitigated diagonal cracking and shifted the failure pattern towards a more ductile mode. This research contributes scientific insights for the broader application and promotion of silty road base improvement techniques using RPFs.

Loose Semirigid Aromatic Polyester Bottle Brushes at Poly(2-isopropyl-2-oxazoline) Side Chains of Various Lengths: Behavior in Solutions and Thermoresponsiveness.

A polycondensation aromatic polyester with an oxygen spacer was synthesized and used as a macroinitiator for the grafting of linear poly(2-isopropyl-2-oxazoline) (PiPrOx) by the cationic polymerization method. The length of the thermosensitive side chains was varied by the initiator:monomer ratio. Using methods of molecular hydrodynamics, light scattering and turbidimetry, the copolymers were studied in organic solvents and in water. The molecular characteristics of the main chain and graft copolymers, the polymerization degree of side chains and their grafting density have been determined. The equilibrium rigidity of the macroinitiator and the conformations of grafted macromolecules were evaluated. In selective solvents, they take on a star-like conformation or aggregate depending on the degree of shielding of the main chain by side chains. The thermoresponsiveness of graft copolymers in aqueous solutions was studied, and their LCST were estimated. The results are compared with data for graft copolymers composed of PiPrOx side chains and flexible or rigid chain backbones of aromatic polyester type.

Aminolysis of polyesters for cracking and structure clarifying: A review

AbstractCracking of polyester bottles and recycling the waste, which is of concern in the current research works have their roots in the environmental stress cracking and the physical structural analysis, which has been the subject of a huge number of research reports, that are collected in the present review. Polyesters are polymers of high importance in industry and academia, and amines are versatile chemicals that are used for different purposes. The reaction of polyester with amines has been used to reveal structure, improve the properties of products, convert polyesters waste into benign materials, enhance biocompatibility, and so on. The research works reported on the aminolysis of polyesters (PET, PCL, PLA, PTT, PBT, PHB, PEN, PEA) for structure and morphological determination, etching, and stress cracking are critically reviewed. The chemistry and mechanism of the reactions of aminolysis of an ester or a polyester are well documented, and a vast amount of useful information is available. There is a need for further research to answer the remaining questions on the intermediates. Solutions of amines act as environmental stress‐cracking agents, may induce crystallization, and probably it can dissolve and remove a certain amount of disordered regions as well. In the subject of stress cracking that can help the elucidation of the process of aging, it is not yet clear how cracks patterns and sizes (from nano up to micro size) observed on the surface of polyester products depend on the thermal and mechanical history of the samples, and it is not known how to produce cracked patterns according to a pre‐planned design on the surfaces of polyester articles. To make polyesters more useful and safe the structure must be revealed in order to get benefit from the structure–property relations.

Immobilization of lanthanide doped aluminate phosphor onto recycled polyester toward the development of long-persistent photoluminescence smart window.

Smart window can be defined as switchable material whose light transmission is altered upon exposure to light, voltage, or heat. However, smart windows are usually produced from expensive and breakable glass materials. Herein, transparent smart window with long-persistent phosphorescence, high optical transmittance, ultraviolet (UV) protection, rigid, high photostability and durability, an d superhydrophobicity was developed from recycled polyester (PET). Recycled polyester waste (RBW) was simply immobilized with different ratios of lanthanide-doped aluminate nanoparticles (LdAN) to provide a long-persistent phosphorescent polyester smart window (LdAN@PET) with an abili ty to persist emitting light for extended time periods. The solid-state high temperature technique was used to prepare lanthanide-doped aluminate (LdA) micro-scale powder. Then, the top-down technique was applied to afford the corresponding LdAN. Recycled shredded recycled polyester bottles were charged into a hot bath to provide a clear plastic shred bulk, which was then well-mixed with LdAN and drop-casted to provide long-persistent luminescent smart window. In order to improve the phosphor dispersion in the PET bulk, LdAN was synthesized in the nanoparticle form which was characterized utilizing transmission electron microscopy (TEM). For better preparation of translucent smart window of long-persistent phosphorescent polyester, LdAN must be homogeneously dispersed in the PET matrix without agglomeration. The morphology and chemical composition were studied by Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy-dispersion X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). In addition, spectral profiles of excitation and emission, and decay and lifetime were used to better understand the photoluminescence properties. The hardness properties were also investigated. The developed phosphorescent transparent polyester smart window demonstrated a color switch to intense green underneath UV irradiation and greenish-yellow under darkness as verified by CIELab color parameters. The afterglow polyester smart window showed an absorption wavelength at 365 nm and two phosphorescence intensities at 442 and 512 nm. An enhanced UV protection, photostability and hydrophobic activity were detected. The luminescent polyester substrates with lower LdAN ratios demonstrated rapid and reversible fluorescent photochromic activity beneath the UV light. The luminescent polyester substrates with higher LdAN contents displayed long-persistent phosphorescence afterglow. The current strategy can be simply applied for the production of smart windows, low thickness anti-counterfeiting films and warning signs.

Recycling technologies for enabling sustainability transitions of the fashion industry: status quo and avenues for increasing post-consumer waste recycling

A major environmental issue of the rise in garment production is a steep increase of textile waste. At the same time, recycling technologies appear to be promising avenues for sustainability transitions of the fashion industry. This article examines the chances and challenges of scaling recycling technologies for textiles and considers the collection and sorting processes as well as the actual reuse. Drawing on case studies and expert interviews, the results indicate current obstacles and opportunities for accelerating diffusion of recycling technologies. Various initiatives are promising, however industry structures, garment designs, and business models need to be re-orientated and re-aligned to accelerate these recycling concepts. Applying the greenwashing notion that acknowledges co-creation by producers and consumers, the article critically argues that the focus on recycled polyester bottles for garments distorts incentives to improve other recycling technologies and masks the true cost of textile-waste recycling. Instead, fashion-brand companies and retailers should leverage their market power to foster sustainability standards in the global recycling industry.

Comparative evaluation of Fe-, Zr-, and La-based metal-organic frameworks derived from recycled PET plastic bottles for arsenate removal

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) derived from recycled polyester (polyethylene terephthalate, PET) bottles were investigated in both batch and column studies for the removal of arsenate. As-synthesized Fe-MOF, Zr-MOF, and La-MOF were systematically analyzed by SEM, PXRD, FTIR, BET, and XPS techniques. The obtained MOFs showed high crystallinity with the specific surface areas of 128.3, 290.4, and 61.8 m2/g for Fe-MOF, Zr-MOF, and La-MOF, respectively. The Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetic model simulated arsenate adsorption on MOF materials well, which can be explained by electrostatic interactions, surface complexation, and ligand exchange mechanisms. The maximum adsorption capacities of arsenate onto Fe-MOF, Zr-MOF, and La-MOF were found to be 70.02, 85.72, and 114.28 mg/g at pH 7, respectively. The effect of pH and co-existing anions on the arsenate adsorption on MOF materials was also evaluated for practical applications. The MOF materials showed reduced adsorption capacity for arsenate by less than 10% up to four cycles of regeneration and did not induce any significant (p > 0.05) acute toxicity (<2.5% mortality) in Daphnia magna. In a flow-through system, Fe-MOF, Zr-MOF, and La-MOF were used to treat 176, 255, and 398 mL bed volumes of arsenate contaminated water, respectively, and consistently reduced the concentration of arsenate ions from 500 to 10 μg/L. This study clearly demonstrated that MOF materials derived from waste PET bottles are economically promising adsorbents for the successful elimination of arsenate species from aqueous environments.

Optimizing bursting behavior of calendered needle-punched polyester fabrics

In the present study, two sets (I and II) of needle-punched nonwoven fabrics using virgin and recycled polyester fibers were prepared varying machine parameters. In the set first (set I) three different parameters namely grams/m2 (GSM), needling density and blend ratio with three different levels and in the second set (set II) three different parameters, i.e. calender roller pressure, calender roller temperature and calender roller speed with three different levels were used. For the first set fabrics, it has been seen that the bursting strength increased with the increase in GSM, needling density as well increased virgin polyester fiber in the blend. In the second set increase in calender roller pressure, roller temperature caused increase in bursting strength, but with the increase in roller speed it decreased. The comparison of both sets fabric revealed that set II fabric formation is economical since there is less consumption of polyester fibers. The investigation of two arrangements of fabrics uncovers that legal choice of calendering parameters may result economical nonwoven fabrics by requiring lesser fibrous strands for the assembling of needle bonded fabrics, moreover it will lessen the contamination by using the waste polyester bottles additionally the reliance on normal oil-based virgin polyester will be reduced.

Effect of calcium carbonate as pore-forming agent on properties of recycled polyethylene terephthalate masterbatch

In order to study the effect of calcium carbonate particles as pore-forming agent on properties of recycled polyethylene terephthalate(PET) masterbatch, pore-forming agent and PET derived from waste bottle were melt-blended and extruded, and then treated with acetic acid solution to obtain recycled PET masterbatch with micro-cavity structure. The influence of content of pore-forming agent and parameters of twin screw extruder for granulation process on the performance of recycled PET melt and masterbatch were analyzed. The results show that the intrinsic viscosity of recycled PET masterbatch is greatly affected by pore-forming agent and the parameters of the twin screw extruder for granulation process. When the mass ratio of polyester bottle flakes to virgin PET is 9:1 and 3 wt% of pore-forming agent added, with the temperature of the barrel 1~6 of the twin-screw extruder is 240°C, 244°C, 244°C, 244°C, 240°C, 240°C, respectively, and 150 r/min of screw speed, the intrinsic viscosity of the recycled PET masterbatch produced by twin screw extruder can reach 0.613 dL/g. The recycled PET masterbatch could be applied to PET fibers spinning. This method provides a new method for improving moisture regain for PET.

Environmental life cycle assessment of textile bio-recycling – valorizing cotton-polyester textile waste to pet fiber and glucose syrup

Emerging textile bio-recycling approaches can address the environmental challenges associated with the end-of-life of clothing. However, it is imperative to assess the environmental impacts associated with these technologies, systematically, to ensure they are environmentally sustainable. The objective of this study is to evaluate the environmental implications of a novel bio-recycling method that recovers polyester (PET) fibres and glucose, from 50/50 cotton/PET blend of fabric waste from H&M, using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The chosen functional unit is one kg of recovered PET fibre. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) was conducted in terms of ReCiPe, both midpoint and endpoint indicators, and Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) impact categories. LCA results of the gate-to-cradle analysis indicate pre-treatment as the most dominant process, followed by melt-spinning and then enzymatic hydrolysis. Sensitivity analysis with Global Warming Potential (GWP) indicator shows that pre-treatment step influences the results and contributes to uncertainty. Pre-treatment (207 MJ) is also the most energy-intensive step, followed by melt-spinning (98.5 MJ) and enzymatic hydrolysis (44.8 MJ). We also describe linkages between addition of PET bottles in the melt-spinning step and environmental impacts. Environmental impacts on all three endpoints increased as the percentage of waste PET bottle chips added was decreased. LCA of the textile bio-recycling method suggests that environmental impacts can be further reduced, provided the involved unit processes are made more energy-efficient, and the fibre quality of the recovered polyester is improved such that it can be directly used for garment production without the need to add waste PET bottle chips.

Ethox triumphs over Coke again

The U.S. Patent & Trademark Office has finally listed Ethox chemist James Tanner among the inventors of a patented gas barrier molecule, bis(2-phenoxyethyl)terephthalate, after a five-year fight between Ethox and Coca-Cola. Greenville, S.C.-based Ethox accused Coca-Cola of deliberately leaving Tanner off the polyester bottle additive application. A federal district court backed Ethox’s claim, and after Coke’s appeal, so did the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. Chuck Hinton, Ethox’s president, says his firm spent $4 million to defend its claim. “Someone has to teach Goliath a lesson,” he says. Coke is free to do what it wants with the technology and “so are we,” he adds.

Avantium picks site for pilot biorefinery

The Dutch biobased chemical maker Avantium will locate a pilot plant for its Zambezi biorefining process at Chemport Europe, an industrial park at AkzoNobel’s site in Delfzijl, the Netherlands. The Zambezi process is intended to convert wood chips into glucose, lignin, and a mixed-sugar syrup as raw materials for the chemical industry. Last year, Avantium formed a joint venture with BASF to develop a biobased process for making polyester bottle resin.

Characterization of the thermal oxidative degradation kinetics of thermoplastics

ABSTRACTThermal oxidative degradation kinetics of polyethylene, poly(ethylene terephthalate), and polystyrene were investigated by thermogravimetric analysis. The samples included low-density polyethylene, medium-density polyethylene, high-density polyethylene, a starch-based biodegradable thermoplastic polyester, polyethylene natural gas pipe, a poly(ethylene terephthalate) water bottle, and a polystyrene drinking cup. The kinetics were conducted under dynamic conditions at heating rates of 10, 20, 30, and 40°C min−1 between 25 and 650°C in air. The Kissinger, Flynn–Wall–Ozawa, and Coats–Redfern methods were used for investigation of degradation of these polymers. Thermal oxidative degradation of the polymers was compared. Low-density polyethylene, medium-density polyethylene, high-density polyethylene, and polyethylene pipe obeyed a diffusion mechanism for oxidative thermal degradation. The starch-based biodegradable thermoplastic polyester, polystyrene cup, and poly(ethylene terephthalate) bottle followed random nucleation, diffusion, and phase boundary-controlled reaction mechanisms, respectively.

Effects of recycling processes on physical, mechanical and degradation properties of PET yarns

Mechanical properties and the long-term degradation properties of the recycled PET yarns are typically lower than the virgin PET yarns due to the contaminants coming from non-PET bottles, labels and caps etc. For environmental reasons, recycling of post-consumer polyester bottles into textile fibers has become commercially attractive. We studied mechanical and chemical recycling processes and examined their effects on yarn properties such as tensile properties, thermal characteristics, hydrolysis and photo-degradation. It was found that the virgin and the chemical recycled yarns with sufficient purification show similar processability, physical and mechanical properties, and long-term degradation behavior. The results provide useful information on recycled PET yarns for processability and serviceability for the high-end use.

Study on Production Process of PSF from Recycled Bottle PET Flakes for Waterproof Felt

The producing method of oil absorbent felt using recycled polyester bottle flakes is discussed, emphasizing on processes parameters such as dryness, filtration, spinning technique, drawing ratio, and etc.

Chemical recycling of PET flakes into yarn

AbstractPolyesters such as polyethylene terephthalate are widely used in textile fibers, films, and packaging of food and beverages. Originally driven by environmental reasons, recycling of postconsumer polyester bottles into textile fibers is now becoming commercially attractive. We studied the chemical recycling wherein part of the virgin raw‐materials during preparation of polyester was replaced by washed post consumer polyester. During the process, the postconsumer polyester undergoes partial depolymerization before repolymerization. Role of reactor‐agitator configuration in achieving the solid‐slurry and solid‐melt mixing, and in depolymerization, was studied. Finally, suitability of the polymer for melt spinning and drawing of polymer into yarn was examined. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011

Preparation and Properties of PET Modified by Nano-SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and Nylon MXD6T

In this paper, poly (m-xylylene adipamide-terephthalyl amide) (MXD6T) and silicon dioxide (SiO2) nanocomposite with SiO2 load from 5% to 20% (by mass) is prepared and used to improve the barrier property of polyester bottle materials. In preparing MXD6T-SiO2 (NMXD6T), silica is in-situ polymerized with hexane diacid, terephthalic acid (TPA), alkyl and aromatic diamine. The different molar ratio of hexane diacid to terephthalic acid with the same molar diamine is designed to give the composites with different viscosity, thermal performance and the barrier properties. The 3-8 times of enhanced permeability of these polyester matrix nanocomposites with this NMXD6T to pure polyester resins are reported. The relationship of NMXD6T’s configuration and the permeability properties of polyester nanocomposites are characterized. DSC shows that NMXD6T is totally amorphous. FTIR shows the existence of silicon-oxygen bond formed in the nanocomposite, and TEM indicates an average size from 30nm to 100nm of SiO2 particles being phase separated from MXD6T matrix, while well bonded to the polyester chains.

Trends in the Development of the Polyethylene Terephthalate Market Worldwide and in Russia

In this review, features of the polyester (PETP) market are studied, the structure of PETP consumption worldwide is given, and the distribution of food-packaging PETP and polymer fibre production between the main regions of the world is reported. The preferential development of polyester bottle production in countries of Europe and North America is substantiated, and also the leading place taken by Asia in the production of polyester fibres and threads. A list is given of the main companies and the capacities of existing units producing polyester fibres and threads and food packaging in the United States, Europe, and Asia. The prospects for the development of the recycled PETP market are analysed, and the expediency of expanding its production is shown. The main areas of application are given. Features of the market for PETP and PETP-based products in countries of the CIS and in Russia are investigated. The geography of Russian imports and exports of PETP is given, and also a list of newly commissioned enterprises.

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