Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers In Samples Research Articles

Concentrations and legislative aspects of PBDEs in plastic of waste electrical and electronic equipment in Brazil

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) have been widely used as additives in polymeric products such as electronic and electrical equipment (EEE) to help meet fire safety regulations. However, some BFRs like polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), are now listed under the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and banned in many countries, due to their adverse health impacts, environmental persistence, and capacity for bioaccumulation and long-range atmospheric transport. Despite this, in Brazil, only a few studies exist of the presence of these contaminants in the environment, and even fewer in waste EEE (WEEE). Against this backdrop, this study measured the presence of PBDEs in samples (n = 159) of WEEE in the metropolitan region of Sorocaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil. PBDEs were detected in 149 samples, with concentrations in 18 samples exceeding the European Union's Low POP Content Limit (LPCL) of 1000 mg/kg. Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) was the congener present at the highest concentration in most samples, with those of other PBDEs such as BDE-47 much lower. In general, samples containing >1000 mg/kg are those categorised as display items and miscellaneous EEE (n = 15.27 %), comprising: parts from cathode ray tube TVs (n = 11), audio systems (n = 2), and LCD TVs (n = 2). In addition, in 5 % (n = 3) of IT and telecommunications equipment samples (computer parts) PBDE concentrations exceeded 1000 mg/kg. Our results show the need for greater control and monitoring of the presence of these pollutants in WEEE before recycling and final disposal, to prevent PBDEs entering the recycling stream.

Dietary exposure and risk assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the Republic of Korea: A nationwide study

In this study, the dietary exposure to seven polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) congener groups, including 22 types of PBDEs compounds, through consumption of 80 food items in Korean diets along with their risk assessment has been investigated. To process this, the concentrations of the target PBDEs in samples of food items were measured. The consumption amounts of the target food items were derived from the results of the 24 h food recall interview of subjects who participated in the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) from 2015 to 2019. Thereafter, the estimated daily intake and risk of exposure for each PBDEs congener group were assessed. Results indicate that although exposure to the target PBDEs was not significant enough to cause a potential health risk, deca-BDE (BDE-209) was the dominant congener in terms of both exposure and risk for consumers in all age groups. Furthermore, while eating seafood was the dominant path for dietary exposure to PBDEs, exposure to octa-BDEs was mostly through livestock products. Accordingly, to protect all consumers, especially those aged below 2 years and over 65 years, more accurate food quality management is required for controlling the dietary intake of PBDEs.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in mothers' breast milk and associated health risk to nursing infants in Uganda.

The aim of this study was to investigate levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in breast milk samples from healthy primiparous mothers who had lived in Kampala capital city (urban area) and Nakaseke district (a rural area) for the last five years. Fifty samples were collected between March and June 2018 and were extracted by dispersive solid-phase extraction (SPE). Clean-up was performed on an SPE column and analysis was done using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Total (∑) PBDEs (BDE 28, 47, 49, 66, 77, 99, 100,138,153, 154, 183 and 209) ranged from 0.59 to 8.11 ng/g lipid weight (lw). The levels of PBDEs in samples from Kampala capital city were significantly higher than those from Nakaseke (p < 0.01, Mann-Whitney U test). The most dominant congeners were BDE-209 and -47 (contributed 37.1% and 20.2%, respectively to ∑PBDEs), suggesting recent exposure of mothers to deca-and penta-BDE formulations. Fish and egg consumption, plastics/e-waste recycling and paint fumes were associated with higher levels of BDE-47, -153 and -99, respectively, implying that diet and occupation were possible sources of the pollutants. Estimated dietary intakes (ng kg-1 body weight day-1) for BDE-47, -99 and -153 were below the US EPA reference doses for neurodevelopmental toxicity, suggesting minimal health risks to nursing infants who feed on the milk. Generally, the risk quotients for BDE-47, -99 and -153 were <1 in majority (96%) samples, indicating that the breast milk of mothers in Uganda was fit for human consumption.

Rapid Sample Preparation Method with High Lipid Removal Efficiency for Determination of Sulphuric Acid Stable Organic Compounds in Fish Samples

A rapid and low-cost sample preparation method modifying the so-called QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe) method was developed for the determination of H2SO4 stable organic compounds in fish samples. The method involves acetonitrile salting-out extraction and a novel clean-up procedure combining the pH-tuned dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME) with conc. H2SO4 digestion. The H2SO4 treatment is carried out by a simple operation in contrast to laborious and time-consuming procedures reported in the literature. The method was developed, optimised and validated using selected polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) as representatives of H2SO4 stable compounds. For instrumental analysis of sample extracts, thermal desorption–gas chromatography–triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (TD–GC–QqQ-MS/MS) was used. The proposed sample preparation method provides better co-extractives removal efficiency as compared to the original QuEChERS method and, unlike the QuEChERS dispersive solid-phase extraction (dSPE), allows complete removal of fatty acids. The sample preparation is low-cost due to the employment of small amounts of low-cost chemicals (no need of expensive sorbents), and it does not require special instrumentation. The whole analytical method showed satisfactory performance (linearity, recovery, repeatability, accuracy, limits of the method), and its applicability was confirmed by determination of PBDEs in samples of four fish species with variable lipid content in the range of 0.7–19%. The obtained recoveries for six PBDEs in the NIST standard reference material SRM 1946 were in the range of 81–95%, and relative standard deviations were in the range of 3–13%.

Accumulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in breast milk of women from an e-waste recycling center in China

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) can be transferred to infants through the ingestion of breast milk, resulting in potential health risk. In this study, PBDEs, hydroxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (OH-PBDEs) and 2,2′,4,4′,5,6′-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153) in human milk from women living adjacent to e-waste recycling sites of Wenling, China, were investigated. The median level of PBDEs in samples from residents living in the e-waste recycling environment >20years (R20 group, 19.5ng/g lipid weight (lw)) was significantly higher than that for residents living in Wenling <3years (R3 group, 3.88ng/g lw) (p<0.05), likely ascribable to specific exposure to PBDEs from e-waste recycling activities. In the R20 group, most congeners (except for BDE-209) were correlated with each other (p<0.05). Moreover, CB-153 showed significant association with most PBDE congeners, rather than BDE-209. The relationship indicated that most BDE congeners other than BDE-209 shared common sources and/or pathways with CB-153, e.g., dietary ingestion. The correlations between BDE-209 and other congeners were different in the two groups, likely suggesting their different exposure sources and/or pathways for PBDEs. Although estimated dietary intake of PBDEs for infants via breast milk was lower than the minimum value affecting human health, the PBDE exposure of infants should be of great concern because of their potential effect on the development of neonates over long-term exposure. OH-PBDEs were not detected in the collected samples, which is in accordance with reports in published literature, likely indicating that they were not apt to be accumulated in human milk.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in soil and outdoor dust from a multi-functional area of Shanghai: Levels, compositional profiles and interrelationships

In this study, 14 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) congeners were investigated in soil and outdoor dust taken from Jiading District, Shanghai City. The concentrations of Σ13PBDEs (BDE-17, BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-66, BDE-71, BDE-85, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-138, BDE-153, BDE-154, BDE-183 and BDE-190) and BDE-209 ranged from 0.37 to 32.9ngg−1 and 4.31 to 141.8ngg−1 dry weight (dw) in soil. Concentrations in outdoor dust ranged from 1.03 to 112.5ngg−1 and 6.71 to 342.1ngg−1 (dw) for Σ13PBDEs and BDE-209. BDE-209 was the predominant congener both in soil and outdoor dust, but the BDE-209 contribution was much lower in dust compared with that in soil. A significant correlation between PBDEs congeners and specific land use type was observed, and principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the major source of PBDE in samples was associated with prevalent use of technical Deca-BDE, which also suggested the contributions from Penta-BDE and Octa-BDE mixtures. Canonical correlation analysis suggested the two sets of PBDEs data (soil and outdoor dust) were uncorrelated, and Spearman correlation coefficient matrix implied that the degradation pathways of PBDEs were different between soil and outdoor dust.

Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in residential dust samples from Western Australia

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are one of the most common types of brominated flame retardants applied to foams, plastics and textiles to prevent fires. These flame retardants are now regulated and are either banned or being voluntarily phased. However, as these chemicals are persistent humans continue to be exposed. Dust has been identified as an important source of exposure and hence residential concentrations are of interest. The aim of this paper was to determine the concentrations of PBDEs in samples of residential dust from the homes of pregnant women in Western Australia.Thirty residential dust samples were analysed for concentrations of 32 PBDE congeners. Samples were collected from urban and rural areas.PBDEs were detected in all residential dust samples with the sum of the most common PBDEs (Σ7 of BDEs 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183 and 209) ranging from 60.4 to 82400ngg−1 (median 571ngg−1). DecaBDE makes up the highest proportion of PBDEs in residential dust, on average 66% of Σ32PBDEs. We did not find a relationship between housing characteristics nor the presence of appliances and PBDE concentrations. Dust from urban areas had significantly higher concentrations of BDE-209 and Σ32PBDEs than dust from rural areas of Western Australia (p values 0.01 and 0.03 respectively).PBDEs were present in residential dust in Western Australia at concentrations higher than reported previously in Australia. Further investigation of sources with a larger sample size is required to determine associations between PBDE concentrations and potential exposure sources and geographical regions.

Determination of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in house dust using standard addition method and gas chromatography with electron capture and mass spectrometric detection

Monitoring of the environmental fate of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) involves determination of their concentration in air, airborne particles and settled dust. This requires the implementation of appropriate analytical tools like measuring instruments, reference materials and analytical procedures. In this study an analytical procedure was developed for determining PBDEs in samples with a complex matrix composition. The efficiencies of three different extraction techniques – Soxhlet extraction (SE), Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE) and Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) – were compared. The study investigated the possibility of using the standard addition method for estimating PBDEs levels. The GC-μECD system was successfully applied as an alternative to low resolution mass spectrometry (LRMS) for determining BDE-209 in dust samples. The developed analytical procedure was then used to analyze dust samples, collected from houses and computer suites in the Tri-city area (Gdansk, Gdynia and Sopot), in order to detect and quantify the presence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the indoor environment. Concentrations of studied congeners (from triBDE to heptaBDE), obtained by chromatographic analysis of dust samples extracts, performed applying two measurement systems (GC-EIMS and GC-μECD) ranged between 331 and 3102ngg−1 for house dust and between <LOD and 870ngg−1 for electronic dust. The highest concentrations were obtained for congeners with four, five and six bromine atoms (BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100 and BDE-153). Concentrations of BDE-209 ranged from 384ngg−1 (house dust) to 12,553ngg−1 (electronic dust).

Levels of dioxins and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in human milk from three regions of northern China and potential dietary risk factors

Human milk samples were collected from 50 breast-feeding mothers in Shijiazhuang, 60 in Tianjin and 48 in Yantai from November 2006 to April 2007. The three areas are located in northern China. We selected randomly 20 samples from each area for detection of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/frans (PCDD/Fs), polycholorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) by high-resolution gas chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRGC/HRMS). Our results show the average concentrations of PCDD/Fs plus dl-PCBs were 6.24 TEQ pg g −1fat, 7.54 TEQ pg g −1fat and 6.69 TEQ pg g −1 fat in human milk from Shijiazhuang, Tianjin and Yantai, respectively. The average concentrations of PBDEs were 3.71 ng g −1 fat, 3.42 ng g −1 fat and 4.16 ng g −1 fat in human milk from Shijiazhuang, Tianjin and Yantai, respectively. Among congeners of PBDEs, the high and low brominated congeners BDE209, BDE207, BDE197, BDE153, BDE15, BDE28 and BDE47 were the predominant PBDE congeners, accounting for 91%, 90% and 84% of total PBDEs in samples from Shijiazhuang, Tianjin and Yantai, respectively. Based on the results of an in-person interview of mothers using a questionnaire, freshwater fish consumption was found to correlate with total mono-ortho dl-PCBs (mo-PCBs) and sea fish consumption was found to correlate with total non-ortho dl-PCBs (no-PCBs) of human milk in these areas. However, no correlation was found between concentrations of total PBDEs and total TEQ of PCDD/Fs plus dl-PCBs and food consumption. Continuous surveillance on dioxins and dl-PCBs levels in human milk is needed to correctly evaluate both the environmental impact and human health risk in China.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in California wastestreams

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used in consumer products, including electronics, fabrics, and polyurethane foam. Exposures may occur during the products’ useful lifetime and also after the products’ disposal. A survey of California wastestreams (e-wastes, autoshredder waste and wastewater sewage sludge) attempted to assess the relative importance of these wastestreams as repositories of PBDEs. Based on measurements of PBDEs in samples of such wastestreams and on assumptions regarding use patterns, e-wastes appeared to be by far the predominant wastestream with 1200 metric tons (MT) of PBDEs year −1, followed by autoshredder waste (31 MT of PBDEs year −1) and sewage sludge (2.3 MT of PBDEs year −1). When these estimates were compared with the reported use of PBDEs in California, about half of the PBDEs could not be accounted for in the wastestreams examined. This suggests that additional wastestreams, such as household wastes should be evaluated for their PBDE content. Information on the presence and fate of PBDEs in all wastestreams needs to be included in decision making practices for waste management to avoid public health and ecologic catastrophes.

Contamination by polybrominated diphenyl ethers and persistent organochlorines in catfish and feed from Mekong River Delta, Vietnam

Commercial feeds for aquaculture and catfish samples were collected from the Mekong River Delta, Vietnam, for determination of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and selected persistent organochlorines, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), DDT and its metabolites (DDTs), chlordane-related compounds (CHLs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), and hexachlorobenzene (HCB). The most abundant contaminants were DDTs, with concentrations ranging from 10 to 700 ng/g lipid weight, followed by PCBs (1.0-80 ng/g), CHLs (<0.01-8.2 ng/g), PBDEs (0.12-3.7 ng/g), HCHs (<0.03-5.1 ng/g), and HCB (<0.07-3.2 ng/g). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers were detected in all samples, suggesting their widespread contamination in the region. However, PBDE contamination levels in the present catfish specimens were low in comparison to levels worldwide. Interestingly, residue levels of all the contaminants were significantly higher in catfish collected near a municipal dumping site compared to farmed catfish. This suggests that runoffs from the dumping site during floods and rains may have brought pollutants to the surrounding areas. Contamination pattern in aquaculture feeds revealed elevated levels of PCBs and PBDEs in samples from foreign companies, perhaps implying their higher residues in some imported ingredients. Congener profiles of PBDEs and PCBs demonstrated similarity between the farmed catfish and the aquaculture feeds, suggesting these feeds as a major source of pollution to the farmed catfish. On the other hand, the PBDE and PCB profiles in the dumpsite catfish are clearly different from those of the farmed catfish, revealing their exposure to different sources. Risk assessment showed significantly higher intake of the contaminants by people who eat catfish cultured near the dumping areas. Further investigation regarding fate and occurrence of the contaminants in dumping sites is necessary.