Polish Border Research Articles

Cross-border competition in the gasoline retail market: Impact of proximity at the German-Polish border

In this article, I analyze how persistently lower gasoline prices in Poland affect the prices set in the German border region. Based on a complete dataset of German gasoline prices and an assessment of driving distances between gasoline stations, I estimate the impact of one additional kilometer of distance to the nearest Polish competitor on the price charged by German gasoline stations. Following the fixed effects filtered estimator approach proposed by Pesaran and Zhou (2018) and controlling for various station characteristics, I find no evidence that German gasoline stations enter price competition with their Polish counterparts. My descriptive analysis of gasoline station infrastructure in the German border region reveals increasingly sparse gasoline station density when approaching the Polish border, along with an increasing share of premium brands. These results may reflect the effect of substantially lower taxes in Poland, discouraging German gasoline stations from locating near the border and effectively ruling out cross-border price competition. Although indirect, my findings suggest the presence of fuel tourism.

The stability of cooperation in the context of cross-border cooperation: The example of Poland's borderlands

Abstract The objective of this paper was to conceptualise the issue of cooperation stability in research on cross-border cooperation. On this basis, regularities related to selected aspects of the stability of cross-border cooperation were identified using the example of the Polish border regions. The analysis was based on a complex review of the Interreg, ETC, ENPI, and ENI cross-border cooperation programmes implemented in the Polish border regions between 2007–2013 and 2014–2020, taking into account both internal and external EU borders. The study covered a total of 1,577 projects realised between 2007–2013 and 2014–2020 by more than 4,500 beneficiaries, comprising 2,307 organisations. A survey of these organisations was also conducted. The resulting analysis helped to identify the relative stability of partner types and the thematic scope and spatial dimension of cross-border cooperation, while at the same time revealing a lack of stability in the organisational dimension. In addition, the study showed that the initiation and subsequent maintenance of cross-border relationships are the result of a complex process, in which many factors co-exist simultaneously, whereas the break-up of cooperation can be the product of individual factors.

Nowelizacje ustawy o ochronie granicy państwowej w latach 2021–2023 jako reakcja ustawodawcy na zewnętrzne zagrożenia Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej

The amendments to the State Border Protection Act analyzed in the study concern primarily the possibility of introducing a prohibition on staying in a designated area of the border zone, and also clarify the conditions for impact (including shooting down) on an aircraft crossing the Polish state border. In the years 2021–2023, the first criminal provisions related to the protection of the state border were also adopted. These changes resulted from tragic events in the international arena during that period, which also affected Poland. These solutions were not wholly new in their idea and instead constituted another step (sometimes more radical) in developing regulations protecting the state border. However, some of the adopted legal solutions, the manner of their implementation into the legal order and their execution raised serious concerns, especially from the perspective of compliance with the principles of the rule of law, including the protection of human rights and their effectiveness.

Migration Challenges and Their Impact on the Primary Healthcare System-A Qualitative Research.

In 2020 it is estimated that 281 million people were international migrants. Migrants constitute a potentially vulnerable population in terms of facing discrimination, poor living and housing conditions, and insufficient access to healthcare services. Due to the armed conflict in Ukraine in 2022, almost 10 million people crossed the Polish border within a year of the outbreak of the conflict. The objective of this paper is to present the use of primary healthcare services by people migrating from Ukraine to Poland and identify the barriers in access to healthcare by this group of persons. This study used a qualitative research technique in the form of an expert interview using individual in-depth interviews (IDI). The study group consisted of professionally active primary healthcare providers (doctors, nurses, and facility managers) in Poland. Research was carried out in the areas regarding the availability of healthcare, the potential threats and challenges, and possible system solutions. The results showed that the most common cause for doctor's appointments among migrants are respiratory infections, including COVID-19. Many cases were related to back pain, mainly resulting from the physical work of the patients. Additionally, some barriers to access and the provision of healthcare services for patients from Ukraine were identified. The majority (75%) of respondents indicated language as a significant barrier when providing services. Based on the study results, we recommend creating a dedicated website and telephone hotline for this group of persons as well as the use of traditional media to distribute information about access to healthcare services. It is also essential to focus on assistance for older people, since they may experience more difficulties with language and navigating the healthcare system.

Environmental policy in rural development management involving territorial partnerships

Motives: Local authorities are seeking new approaches to development, with a strong emphasis on multifunctional development. Taking into account the state of the natural environment, they need to implement various activities that effectively reduce anthropogenic pressure. Poland’s membership in the EU requires the implementation of the European Green Deal. The neighbouring Polish and Ukrainian regions of Lublin and Lviv, which share similar environmental conditions and a common cultural heritage, were chosen for this study. The Polish border regions have the potential to serve as an important model for Ukrainian border regions as they strive to integrate into the European Union. This paper provides an overview of development and environmental support policies, as well as in-depth case studies, to establish a basis for assessing the sustainable functioning of rural municipalities and territorial partnerships. Aim: This study examined supra-local strategic documents concerning environmental protection and rural development in Polish and Ukrainian municipalities. Their socio-economic situation was characterised, and the goals and activities proposed under their environmental protection programmes and local development strategies were identified. Results: Based on the research findings, a proposal was formulated for implementing systemic solutions in the development of strategic plans to ensure that local strategies become fundamental tools for implementing measures that support environmental protection and sustainable development.

Community resilience in response to humanitarian and refugee crisis caused by Russian invasion of Ukraine – a case study of Polish border communities

Celem artykułu jest analiza roli odporności społeczności w sytuacjach kryzysowych i niepewności. Analizie poddano dwa przykłady reakcji społeczności na bezprecedensowy kryzys humanitarny i uchodźczy wywołany inwazją Rosji na Ukrainę 24 lutego 2022 r. Analizowane społeczności znajdowały się w dwóch przygranicznych obszarach Polski: północno-wschodnim – w regionie przygranicznym zwanym przesmykiem suwalskim, oraz południowo-wschodnim – w Bieczu, znanym też jako „Mały Kraków”. Podstawowym celem analizy było lepsze poznanie podstawowych wymiarów odporności społeczności w celu zbadania ich wpływu na reakcję na wspomnianą sytuację kryzysową. Jednym z tych wymiarów jest sprawczość, która ułatwia dostosowywanie się do zmieniających się warunków, zarówno na poziomie pojedynczych osób, jak i społeczności [Inglehart, Welzel 2009]. Drugim elementem odporności społeczności, jak też istotną częścią proaktywnego etapu zarządzania kryzysowego, jest gotowość cywilna, rozumiana jako możliwość utrzymania procesów kluczowych dla funkcjonowania społeczeństwa, zapewnienie dostępności do podstawowych zasobów i zdolność aparatu państwowego do funkcjonowania w sytuacji kryzysowej [Zekulic i in. 2017]. Na potrzeby analizy wykonano badania jakościowe w postaci wywiadów przeprowadzanych na miejscu i na żywo z przedstawicielami dwóch grup, wolontariuszy i członków lokalnej społeczności, zaangażowanych w pomoc ukraińskim uchodźcom przybywającym do Polski. Wyniki badań wskazują, że kryzys uchodźczy i humanitarny wywołany pełnoskalową inwazją Rosji na Ukrainę uruchomił zdolność społeczeństw do działania i zjednoczył je w jednym celu: odpowiedzenia na tę bezprecedensową sytuację kryzysową pomocą dla uchodźców z Ukrainy. Obie wspomniane grupy podjęły się praktycznych działań w terenie w odpowiedzi na sytuację kryzysową, pomagając istotom ludzkim w potrzebie. Pomoc ta często, w szczególności w trakcie pierwszych tygodni inwazji, miała charakter oddolny i indywidualny, z wykorzystaniem wszelkiego rodzaju, często doraźnych, sposobów, metod i rozwiązań. Stanowi ona tym samym solidną podstawę do budowy i rozwoju odporności społeczności. Słowa kluczowe: kryzys, niepewność, odporność społeczeństw, sprawczość, gotowość cywilna

Evidence for Slavic lead mining and trade: Early Rus’ lead seals from Czermno and Gródek on the Polish Rus’ border

Both in Byzantium and by the Kievan Rus’, lead seals were used to signify ownership. Their stamped inscriptions and symbols are analogous to coinage and are a rich source of information on interaction and commerce. The Rus’ used them in the 11th-13th century CE as regular seals issued by rulers and church officials but also for sealing a specified number of furs exported from East European forests (creating ‘approved’ pelt bundles; so-called Drohiczyn seals). The latter are concentrated at Kievan Rus’-Polish border settlements, signalling cross-border exchange. Fourteen seals were analysed (Pb-isotope / trace elements) to investigate lead source and the direction of trade. The results of eleven suggest a connection to the nearby Olkusz lead mines in southern Poland (west of Cracow). This new evidence for lead transport from southern Poland to the Kievan Rus’ is of great significance for further research into reconstructing trade routes connecting Latin and Orthodox (Rus’) Europe. It show that trade routes ran not only through Scandinavia via Novgorod and from the Black Sea via Kiev but also laterally, linking Poland and Rus’.

Działania społeczne a proces profilowania świata społecznego. Casus prawicowej i liberalnej interpretacji sytuacji na polsko-białoruskiej granicy

When in the second half of 2021 the situation on the Polish-Belarusian border rapidly inflamed, it became a subject of numerous articles published in major opinion weeklies of different ideological orientations. Their analysis using the profiling concept developed by Jerzy Bartmiński allowed to reveal two alternative profiles of people trying to cross Polish border from Belarus (illegal immigrant versus refugee) and different images of the social world hidden behind them, manifested in ideological (right-wing and liberal) language codes. According to J. Bartmiński’s concept, profiling is reconstructable practically in every text of culture, and the reconstruction of profiling makes it possible to obtain a cognitive definition, i.e. one that allows to present the way the speakers understand the events of the social world, the ways of ordering, categorizing and evaluating them. The reconstructed profiles were used in the analysed texts to generate different action patterns (defense of sovereignty versus helping people in a humanitarian crisis), which, however, have a common area, which is identifying the figure of external enemy and inner traitor.

European Border Region Studies in Times of Borderization: Overview of the Problem and Perspectives

Since at least the time of the COVID-19 pandemic, the role of borders could no longer be overlooked. This global development has also penetrated the European border regions along with the virus. There, European border region studies is now confronted with events that it has thus far hardly had to deal with. This article addresses such events and elaborates on the interplay of borderization and deborderization processes in the context of “covidfencing”. For this purpose, social negotiation processes of border closures in the Greater Region SaarLorLux and in the German–Polish border area are discussed as “people’s resilience”. This article considers how European border region studies can deal with events and questions in times of borderization. Drawing on international border studies, the research agenda can be extended to everyday cultural issues. In addition, the common concept of borders can be adjusted in order to make the border more accessible as a subject of everyday cultural negotiations. 
 Keywords: COVID-19, covidfencing, border, borderization, deborderization, cross-border commuters, border studies, everyday culture, bordering, resilience.

Do we need a border wall? The social perception of ‘walling’ the Polish-Russian border after the outbreak of the war in Ukraine

ABSTRACT The project of progressive securitisation of the Polish – Russian borderland is implemented with huge support from local communities. Inhabitants of the Polish border area support all possible tools intended for the protection of the Polish – Russian border. The results also show that the war in Ukraine and potential threats of migration from the Kaliningrad Oblast change the social optics with regard to the border with Russia. The present paper seeks to investigate how the local communities of Polish border zone with Russia perceive the activities conducted in order to reinforce the defensive function of the Polish – Russian border. For this purpose, a survey was carried out among inhabitants of the Polish border area with Russia.

Directions of change in the spatial policies of Polish border municipalities during the first year of war in Ukraine, 2022

Local-level spatial policies in Poland are determined by diverse social, economic, political and environmental factors. On the one hand, they result from the specific characteristics of individual areas. On the other, however, supra-local factors are found to be playing an increasingly important role. These can include trends related to the Europeanisation of spatial planning and the associated promoted institutional changes and changes in planning practices. However, from February 2022 onwards, certain European countries in particular have seen another important factor has come into play, i.e. the war in Ukraine. It thus seems legitimate to verify how the fundamental change in the geopolitical situation, i.e. the location in the immediate vicinity of a victim state (Ukraine), an aggressor state (Russia) and an aggressor-friendly state (Belarus), along with a number of related consequences (including a change in the nature of border capacity, a sense of insecurity, potential changes in investment policy, etc.) determine the directions local spatial policies have been taking. The main purpose of the article is to diagnose the current planning situation of units of local-government administration along Poland’s eastern border by reference to two groups of issues: (1) concerning the state of progress of planning work, as well as (2) the impact of the outbreak of war in Ukraine on changes in spatial policy (perforce ancillary, given the small number of responses received). The source of the data were annual surveys of the Ministry of Development and Technology and Statistics Poland regarding the advancement of planning work at the level of the Polish gmina, as well and a survey addressed to all 77 such units of local administration located by the border. Particular reference was made to the application of spatial-planning instruments at the local level (studies of spatial planning conditions and directions, local spatial development plans and decisions on development conditions – with the analyses concerning the period before the major July 2023 amendment of spatial planning law). Particular attention was paid to the frequency of enactment of individual acts, with this being related to both earlier periods and trends in Poland as a whole. The research finds that the relatively high level of activity shown by some of the surveyed gminas in amending/updating spatial planning studies and spatial / physical development plans may not be related to the outbreak of war in Ukraine. The Polish spatial-planning system in fact lacks instruments by which to react flexibly and ensure the integration of development policies (as is particularly necessary when a crisis erupts).

Community resilience in response to humanitarian and refugee crisis caused by Russian invasion of Ukraine – a case study of Polish border communities

Since this study aim is to analyze the role of community resilience in response to crisis and uncertainty, two cases of community responses to an unprecedented refugee and humanitarian crisis caused by Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24th February 2022 made by two Polish border communities from two corners of Poland, one in northeast, in a borderland area referred to as Suwałki Gap and second in southeast, in Biecz, referred to as “Little Cracow” have been studied. The main objective of this study is to gain knowledge of one of core dimensions of community resilience, namely agency which enhances adaptability on both individual and collective level, often referred to as the locus of control [Inglehart, Welzel 2009] as well as a pillar of community resilience and crucial element in the proactive phase of crisis cycle management, civil preparedness defined as the ability to sustain functions vital to society, ensuring basic supply and the State’s capacity to act in a crisis situation [Zekulic et al. 2017 in: Civil-Military Copperation Center of Excellence Info Sheet 2024] to see if they have enhanced community resilience in this response. For this purpose, on site and in person qualitative interviews have been conducted with research participants, from two interview groups of volunteers and community members who were privately and professionally involved in this response, namely in helping Ukrainian refugees arriving to Poland. The results demonstrate that refugee and humanitarian crisis caused by the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine triggered communities’ agency to act and kept them united by the same aim – to respond to this unprecedented crisis by helping Ukrainian refugees. Those practical and hands-on experiences of both communities in response to crisis by helping another human being in need, very often and especially in the first weeks of the invasion, bottom-up and individually, with the use of all kinds of, often ad hoc, means, methods and various solutions, provide a solid civil preparedness ground on which community resilience could be built and strengthened. Key words: crisis and uncertainty, community resilience, agency, civil preparedness

THE END OF THE UKRAINIAN-RUSSIAN WAR: NEW/OLD THREATS TO POLISH INTERNAL SECURITY AND PUBLIC ORDER

This article raises the issue of the threat that may be posed to Polish internal security after the end of hostilities in Ukraine by former soldiers and volunteers fighting on the Ukrainian side. When discussing cross-border crime, the author points to areas that may be of interest to informal veterans’ organizations, as well as to the possibility of penetrating the criminal world of former military personnel. Presenting threats, the author also points to tasks for the Polish border protection system in the field of combating organized crime.

CROSS-BORDER ACTIVITY OF RESIDENTS OF BORDER REGIONS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION (A CASE STUDY OF LITHUANIANS IN THE POLISH BORDER MARKET)

Aim: The study analyzes the cross-border activity of Lithuanians in the Polish border market and the sociodemographic factors determining such activity. Methods: A total of 328 respondents participated in interviews conducted from December 2022 to January 2023. Non-parametric tests were used to analyze the data. The research questions included in this study are as follows – Q1: What are the preferred areas of cross-border activity of Lithuanian residents in the Polish border market?; Q2: What socio-demographic factors determine the cross-border activity of Lithuanian residents in the Polish border market? Results: The results show that the respondents were most active in border trade, tourism, and social relations between regional residents. Age, place of residence, and household size had no significant effect on any of the analyz­ed areas of cross-border activity of Lithuanians in the Polish border market. Education, professional status, and monthly income had a statistically significant effect on cross-border trade activity, while tourism was significantly statistically affected by gender and education. Conclusions: Cross-border activity fosters the development of border trade and tourism, as well as the creation of links between local communities living in border areas that strengthen neighborly relations. Border trade should encourage entrepreneurs to seek innovative and socially responsible practices that support the sustainable economic development of a country or region. The study provides evidence in the context of realizing cross-border activity that supports residents of border regions in adapting to dynamically changing geopolitical conditions.

ACTIVITIES OF TRADING FIRMS OF VOLYN VOIVODSHIP ON THE POLISH-SOVIET BORDER IN THE 1920s

Abstract
 The purpose of the article is to analyze the activities of Polish trading firms of the Volyn Voivodeship on the eastern border of the Second Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 1920s.
 The scientific novelty consists in the introduction into circulation of a significant number of hitherto unknown scientific sources regarding the activities of trading firms on the Polish-Soviet border in the specified period.
 Methodology. When writing the article, the basic principles of historical knowledge were used: historicism, scientificity, objectivity. Specific search tasks of the research were solved by problem-chronological means (optimal involvement of the thematic literature and source base); historical-comparative (analysis of various sources and formation of relevant research provisions and conclusions); critical analysis (critical attitude to various sources) methods.
 Conclusions. The first half of the 1920s was a time of intensification of contraband trade on the Volyn section of the Polish-Soviet border, which in turn led to the emergence of a number of trading firms focused on foreign buyers. Their activities were constantly in the field of view of representatives of the Polish state authorities, police bodies, and border guard units. During the first half of the 1920s, the Polish state was looking for an optimal model of organizing the protection of the eastern border of the state. With the transfer of functions for the protection of the Polish-Soviet border to units of the Border Guard Corps, the strengthening of border protection on the Soviet side, the collapse of the NEP led to the gradual collapse of the activities of companies and smugglers. In the early 1930s, most of the firms ceased their activities, and their owners reoriented themselves to trade on the western border of the Second Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The impact of the maritime border on the development of Po- land’s border areas in terms of expenses of foreigners and the COVID-19 pandemic

The aim of this paper is to present the issue of border traffic of foreigners and their expenses on the Polish maritime border. The study is based on quantitative data on border traffic and expenses of foreigners in Poland. The time of the study was 2014–2021. Thus, the impact of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic on foreigners’ mobility and spending in Poland was additionally taken into account. For the purpose of this paper, the following study methods were adopted: reference literature analysis, secondary data analysis and comparative analysis. The paper mainly uses data from official statistics and the Border Guard. The study has shown that the Polish maritime border generates the smallest volume of border traffic, however, its share increased during the analysed period from 0.7% in 2014 to 0.8% in 2021. Nevertheless, it is foreigners crossing the maritime border who on average spend in Poland more than twice as much as foreigners crossing the Polish land border. In 2020, they spent the most on non-food goods (40%) and services (34.7%). As the study results reveal, their spending patterns and travel purposes are different from those of foreigners crossing the land border. The potential that foreign visitors bring is significant for the development of border areas in such sectors as tourism, services and trade. The analysis of the motivation of foreigners crossing the sea border makes it possible to shape the regional development policy of this particular area.

Belarusian – Polish Border: The Politics of Cross-Border Migration

Amidst the political conflict between the European Union (EU) and Belarus, thousands of Middle Eastern migrants have been stranded at the Belarusian-Polish border. The article analyses the border clashes and politics of various migration issues in the European Union. The circumstances have been changing tremendously since November 2021, with an influx of migrants trying to cross the Belarusian border into Poland. This article further articulates the EU’s role in solving the cross-border immigration into the Poland border. The research analyzes to understand the politically motivated humanitarian crisis that is widely understood as a response from Belarus. While classical realist theories are used to account for the mechanism of secure cross-border problems, socially-oriented theories are often invoked to characterise relaxed borders. The article aims to challenge these simplified categorisations and theories, that secure borders are a long-standing reality and that security is a more complex theoretical conceptualisation. The research describes international intervention in the immigrant crisis at the Polish border and that the European Commission and EU leaders have accused Lukashenko of deliberately aiding the smuggling of migrants from the Middle East to the Polish-Belarusian border.

The Same Song, Different Melodies —A Comparative Analysis of TV Coverage of the Crisis on the Polish-Belarusian Border

Abstract “The Song” is about the crisis on the Polish-Belarusian border, which began in the second half of 2021 and has been going on to this day. It is related to the unexpected appearance of newcomers from the Middle East and Africa (mainly Muslims) on the border. They tried (and are still trying) to cross the Polish border on their way to the West or to stay in Poland. There were thousands of them. Their appearance on the eastern border has triggered a crisis that we have known so far only from previous media reports on the southern border of the European Union. Due to the introduction of a state of emergency by the Polish authorities, it was also possible to follow their fate only through the media. However, these messages did not allow the recipient to obtain an integrated picture of the situation. Rather, they created quite contradictory narratives, different “melodies” about the crisis. In the text, I present the messages of two antagonistic television stations, i.e. TVP and TVN. On their example, I outline the rather schizophrenic social reality in which Polish citizens currently find themselves, its interpretations and proposals for overcoming the impasse. David Altheide’s Ethnographic Content Analysis is used as a theoretical framework for the analysis. It emphasizes the interaction of the researcher with the collected research material, thus classifying such analysis as fieldwork. At that time, it was the only opportunity for a fieldwork.

SMUGGLING CIGARETTES TROUGH THE BORDER SECTION PROTECTED BY NADBUZANSKI BORDER GUARD REGIONAL UNIT AS A THREAT AND BORDER SECURITY PROTECTION CHALLENGE

The aim of this article is to present one of the vital problems the Border Guard fights against – smuggling cigarettes through the borders, which has a worldwide range, but this article is focused on cigarette smuggling routes from Eastern Europe through (and to) Poland, taking into consideration Polish border section protected by Nadbuzanski Border Guard Regional Unit (NBGRU). The article also presents the peculiarities occurring in smuggling goods tendencies used by criminals and presents the methods of fighting against this problem, as efficient protection of EU external borders is an important part of the European border protection system. The tendencies indicated in this article, engage mostly organized criminal groups in smuggling excise goods, and their determination and brutality, clearly show that decisive steps are needed to fight against smugglers. In the future, we should expect that Poland will be not only the transit territory for smuggling cigarettes but also the recipient as OLAF experts claim. The article is an attempt to indicate the problem of smuggling cigarettes through the borders which has a worldwide range, on the example of one section of the Polish border protected by NBGRU, which of course, does not present all sides of the problem. It is obvious to everyone that stopping this business is impossible, but what is real and all countries trying to tackle this problem should consider, is controlling this activity and limiting the scale of smuggling cigarettes by effective cooperation of all law enforcement institutions on both – national and international levels.

Bezpieczeństwo wschodniej granicy Polski wobec współczesnych zagrożeń transgranicznych

Modern threats are a multidimensional problem, in addition to the old and well-known, there are constantly new, dynamically changing security environments. The grounds for security threats are diverse and evolve along with the development of international relations, changes in the interests of the state and its position on the international arena. The aggressive, imperial policy of the Russian Federation is an example of this and contributes to instability in the region and seriously threatens the sovereignty of neighboring countries. Guaranteeing the security of the Polish border (especially the eastern – external of European Union) is a serious challenge and must be constantly adapted to the changing threats occurring in times of peace, crisis, and also in times of war. The author characterizes the contemporary security environment of Poland and the accompanying cross-border threats, presents the process of shaping the EU external border security system together with the current situation of the security management of the Polish state border. It also draws conclusions that the state border must still be in the center of interest of the state authorities and indicates that as a result of the current external threat to the state, there is a need to improve the cooperation of services and institutions responsible for the security of the state border in the national and international dimension.