Police Resources Research Articles

A Police Response Effort Index to complement counts and harm indices in understanding crime and policing demand

Responding to crime and non-crime policing demand in the increasingly complex policing environment calls for increasingly nuanced means of measuring demand. Complementing traditional crime counts, the recent development of crime harm indices provides one such means, whereby crimes are weighted by estimates of their harm or severity. Analysis using crime harm indices has shown that high harm victims, offenders, locations and times differ from the people and places that unweighted crime counts would highlight as a priority for police resource. However, crime harm indices apply only to crime, so they cannot be used to analyse both crime and non-crime demand, and harm is but one way of differentiating demand types. We therefore present an additional, complementary tool: the Police Response Effort Index (PREI). The PREI provides values for weighting crime and non-crime demand types by the amount of effort (time) typically involved during police’s initial response. It enables police to make decisions and target interventions with a more nuanced understanding of when, where and on whom police effort concentrates. This paper describes the development of the New Zealand PREI, providing a potential template for other jurisdictions.

A doubly stochastic point process approach for spatio-temporal dynamics of crime data

Crime, in general, is at the base of crucial issues for many societies living in large cities worldwide. Indeed, crime and neighbourhood disorder may negatively impact the health of urban residents. Thus, the crime rate reduction is at the core of many local policies driven by active plans supported by police action and local authorities. Considering crime reports as a spatio-temporal point pattern, we propose spatio-temporal log-Gaussian Cox processes as a modelling framework for crimes in space and time. We model the spatial and temporal variation through generalized parametric additive and linear models, and a Gaussian space-time process approximates the residual variation. The inference is performed via Markov chain Monte Carlo through MALA algorithms. We provide short-term forecasts of future crimes and suggest a surveillance system that operates by reporting predictive probabilities. Our data come from the reported crimes in the locality of Kennedy (Bogota) over several years and several types of crimes. The police department may use our method to help allocate police resources and design crime prevention strategies and policies, such as surveillance, in specific zonal planning units.

Investigating organised human trafficking crimes: case studies of police investigations in England

ABSTRACT Investigating organised human trafficking criminality is neither easy nor straightforward. Among the complexity is the need to balance and secure multiple, and often competing, investigative goals. Using case studies of actual human trafficking investigations in England, the present exploratory study provides insights into the tensions between safeguarding victims while also (at the same time) building up evidence against those who exploit them in order to secure a successful prosecution. Findings reveal that factors associated with the assessed level of risk of victims, the intelligence available at the start of the investigation and police resources (balanced with opportunities and risk to secure the investigative goals) influence the investigative approach followed and strategies implemented, particularly those aiming to engage with victims. The exploratory findings illustrate the importance of intelligence in risk assessment and decision-making processes during police operations, but also the need to conduct yet further research on risk assessment within the context of human trafficking investigations to inform policy and decision-making policing practices.

Social Justice Coalition & 2 others v Minister of Police and 4 others: Right to City as a Mitigating Concept to Harms on Public Safety

The South African constitution in section 9(3) prohibits unfair discrimination against anyone. This paper aims to unpack a judgement handed down by the Constitutional Court of South Africa on 19 July 2022 relating to the unfair allocation of policing resources in South Africa, thus resulting in unfair discrimination. The case discussed is the case of Social Justice Coalition and 2 others v Minister of Police and 4 others. Systematic discrimination has seen less allocation of police resources amongst poorer communities such as Khayelitsha in Cape Town. The paper further aims to see how local government can play a meaningful role in promoting public safety in its law and policy, thus promoting the ‘right to city’ and adhering to United Nations normative approaches on Urban crime and safety. This may mitigate systematic discrimination that historically disadvantaged areas have in policing resources across South Africa. Generally, South Africa is ranked one of the most violent societies. Murder, robbery, rape, femicide, and domestic violence occur at alarming levels. Cities such as Cape Town rank amongst the twenty most violent cities in the world, with the likes of some Latin and Central American cities, which are countries that are not in any form of civil war or civil unrest. It is a general norm that some areas have developed a reputation of being high risk to public safety because of various violent crimes such as gun shooting, stabbing, and rape. Certain areas in metropolitan cities, such as Khayelitsha Cape Town, are known to have high unreported incidents of violent crimes. It is worth pointing out that the application brought before the courts focuses on the lack of policing resources in Cape Town. This judgement also fits into the reality of the situation across South African townships under-resourced with policing resources to deal with violent crime and other crime. The paper will be structured in a way that first gives a background of the case, secondly a critical analysis of the case through the concept of ‘right to city’ and thirdly, submissions and a conclusion.

Police Involvement in Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest: A Qualitative Exploration of Law Enforcement Roles and Contributing Organizational Factors

Objectives Many American police organizations respond to out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA). This study sought to: 1) explore variation in the role of police in OHCA across emergency medical systems and 2) identify factors influencing this variation. Methods We conducted a qualitative multisite case study analysis using data collected through semi-structured key informant interviews and multidisciplinary focus groups with telecommunicators, fire, police, emergency medical services, and hospital personnel across nine Michigan emergency systems of care. Sites were sampled based on return of spontaneous circulation rates, trauma region, geography, rurality, and population density. Data were analyzed to examine police role in OHCA and the organizational factors that contribute to these roles. Transcripts and coded data were explored using iterative thematic analysis and matrices. Results Interviews included approximately 160 public safety informants of varying administrative levels (i.e., field staff, mid-level managers, and leadership). Across systems, police played four on-scene roles in OHCA response: 1) early responder, 2) resuscitation team member, 3) security, and 4) information gathering. Less consistently, police performed supplementary roles as telecommunicators and cardiac arrest educators. We found that factors including administrative structure of the police agency, resources (e.g., human and material), organizational culture, medical training, deployment and response policies, nature of response environment, and relationships with other prehospital stakeholders contributed to the degree certain roles were present. Conclusions Police serve numerous on-scene and supplementary roles in OHCA response across jurisdictions. Their roles were influenced by multiple factors at each site. Future studies may help to better understand the value of and how to optimize police engagement in OHCA response.

Investigating LiDAR Sensor Accuracy for V2V and V2P Conflict Detection at Signalized Intersections

This paper examined the accuracy of six installed LiDAR sensors at six different signalized intersections in Trois-Rivières City, Quebec, Canada. At each intersection, the crucial leading and following movements that cause vehicle–vehicle (V2V) and vehicle–pedestrian (V2P) conflicts were identified, and the LiDAR results were compared to crash reports recorded by police, insurance companies, and other reliable resources. Furthermore, the intersection crash rates were calculated based on the daily entering vehicle traffic and the frequency of crashes at each intersection. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) were utilized over 970,000 V2V and V2P conflicts based on the post encroachment time (PET) and time-to-collision (TTC) safety assessment measures. Bayesian models were used to assess the relationships between different intersection characteristics and the occurrence of conflicts, providing insights into the factors influencing V2V and V2P conflict occurrences. Additionally, a developed image-processing algorithm was utilized to examine the conflicts’ trajectories. The intersections’ crash rates indicated that safety considerations should be implemented at intersections #3, #6, #4, #1, #5, and #2, respectively. Additionally, intersections #6, #4, and #3 were the intersections with the highest rates of vehicle–pedestrian conflicts. Analysis revealed the intricate nature of vehicle and pedestrian interactions, demonstrating the potential of LiDAR sensors in discerning conflict-prone areas at intersections.

The Road to Crime: An Unintended Consequence of the Interstate Highway System

Abstract The necessity to overhaul national infrastructure has become one of the key issues of US domestic policy in recent years. While the benefits of infrastructure spending are often straightforward, its unintended consequences are less well understood. This paper studies the impact of transportation infrastructure on local crime, focusing on the construction of the Interstate Highway System (IHS), the largest public works project in US history. Using a staggered difference-in-differences design and a county-by-year panel dataset spanning all US counties between 1960 and 1993, we find that a highway opening in a county led to an 8% rise in total index crime. This effect is driven by property crime (burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft), although some evidence suggests an increase in violent crime as well. Exploring potential mechanisms, we show that the positive effect of highways on crime is concentrated in counties with low pre-existing stock of police resources where increased connectivity may have raised the returns to crime. Moreover, we find that highway construction induced higher local employment, average firm size, and the local population size, thus increasing the returns to criminal activity, and ultimately the risk of victimisation in the newly-connected counties.

Illicit drug use at licensed premises and the potential for prevention: A qualitative interview study of stakeholders.

Background: The aim of this study was to explore how stakeholders perceive illicit drugs at licensed premises, existing and potential prevention interventions, and to identify facilitators and barriers to reduce illicit drugs at these locations. Methods: Semi-structured interviews with police officers, licensed premises owners, security staff and municipality officials (n = 28) in seven counties in middle Sweden were conducted and analysed using qualitative content analysis. Results: The informants reported frequent illicit drug use and dealing at licensed premises, causing a negative influence on the restaurant environment. Efforts to prevent illicit drugs varied with respect to type and intensity but included environmental and situational changes as well as education and training, policy implementation and law enforcement. Facilitators for the reduction of illicit drugs are confidence that sufficient resources are allocated, motivated and skilled stakeholders who see benefits of prevention and collaborate closely, along with visible results. General societal prevention was also seen as important. Identified barriers were perceived drug-positive norms and high availability and use in the society, perceived lack of prioritisation and resources, difficulties to collaborate due to e.g., secrecy between organisations, lack of action among stakeholders due to financial considerations, perceived confusion about roles and mandate, and owner's and staff's fear of threats and violence from criminals or own involvement in crime. Conclusion: To maximise the potential of successful prevention, authorities should support owners of licensed premises to act firmly against illicit drugs by providing training, ensure that they apply a strict policy, work for increased stakeholder collaboration and provide appropriate police resources. Authorities should also investigate criminal activities among owners and staff as well as combat organised crime and availability of illicit drugs in the society.

Joining forces: Combining police and external expertise for cold case reviews

Cold case reviews within police and law enforcement agencies are challenging, not the least owing to the amount of time required to carefully review documentation, forensic exhibit holdings and various other casefile information. Most federal and state agencies are time poor, meaning there are very few dedicated cold case teams fortunate enough to have an abundance of police and expert staff resources. Universities and education organisations, however, have large troves of various expertise, alongside expansive human resources, by way of their academic and student body. In certain circumstances, the academic expertise and course offerings of a university may be well suited to assisting law enforcement in reviewing cold cases.There is growing desire for university courses to generate job ready graduates. In the field of law enforcement and policing this is difficult, as safety and the security of sensitive material and evidence is paramount. Educators strive to create workplace simulations, and with the correct mix of academic expertise, course offerings and industry linkages, the emerging opportunity for real cold case collaboration is possible. One such example is the Cold Case Review @ Murdoch (CCR) initiative. Since 2020, CCR has worked with the Lower Saxony Police Academy in Germany to develop the novel International Cold Case Analysis Project (ICCAP), now incorporating over 25 member institutions, to assist in solving real cases from both Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony) and federal police jurisdictions. One case, known as “The North Sea Man” has shown great success and demonstrates the power of joining forces between law enforcement and external agencies to help advance cold cases.

Fuck: The Police

This study focuses on police profanity, with a particular interest developing reasonable policy to regulate the use of the word “fuck.” Officers employ “fuck” as a linguistic tool to accomplish a range of goals, such as establishing authority, fostering solidarity, and diffusing tension. However, “fuck” can also be used derogatorily, and negatively impact public assessments of police actions. Policy in this area is either absent, overly broad, or inappropriate to its intended use. Following brief, unstructured interviews with line and executive officers, I propose a novel policy theory of profanity, deriving target and intent. I test the theory with a pre-registered experiment administered to a national sample of police and human resources executives ( n = 1492), with each respondent evaluating multiple vignettes ( n = 5280 observations). Results support the proposed theory and generate useful recommendations for practitioners interested in strengthening the ability of agencies to constrain professionally inappropriate use of profanity in the police workplace.

An ALNS-based approach for the traffic-police-routine-patrol-vehicle assignment problem in resource allocation analysis of traffic crashes

Objectives Imbalances between limited police resource allocations and the timely handling of road traffic crashes are prevalent. To optimize resource allocations and route choices for traffic police routine patrol vehicle (RPV) assignments, a dynamic crash handling response model was developed. Methods This approach was characterized by two objective functions: the minimum waiting time and the minimum number of RPVs. In particular, an adaptive large neighborhood search (ALNS) was designed to solve the model. Then, the proposed ALNS-based approach was examined using comprehensive traffic and crash data from Ningbo, China. Results Finally, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate the bi-objective of the proposed model and simultaneously demonstrate the efficiency of the obtained solutions. Two resolution methods, the global static resolution mode, and real-time dynamic resolution mode, were applied to explore the optimal solution. Conclusions The results show that the optimal allocation scheme for traffic police is 13 RPVs based on the global static resolution mode. Specifically, the average waiting time for traffic crash handling can be reduced to 5.5 min, with 53.8% less than 5.0 min and 90.0% less than 10.0 min.

A location discrete choice model of crime: Police elasticity and optimal deployment.

Despite the common belief that police presence reduces crime, there is mixed evidence of such causal effects in major Latin America cities. In this work we identify the casual relationship between police presence and criminal events by using a large dataset of a randomized controlled police intervention in Bogotá D.C., Colombia. We use an Instrumental Variables approach to identify the causal effect of interest. Then we consistently estimate a Conditional Logit discrete choice model with aggregate data that allow us to identify agents' utilities for crime location using Two Stage Least Squares. The estimated parameters allow us to compute the police own and cross-elasticities of crime for each of the spatial locations and to evaluate different police patrolling strategies. The elasticity of crime to police presence is, on average across spatial locations, -0.26 for violent crime, -0.38 for property crime and -0.38 for total crime, all statistically significant. Estimates of cross-elasticities are close to zero; however, spillover effects are non-negligible. Counterfactual analysis of different police deployment strategies show, for an optimal allocating algorithm, an average reduction in violent crime of 7.09%, a reduction in property crimes of 8.48% and a reduction in total crimes of 5.15% at no additional cost. These results show the potential efficiency gains of using the model to deploy police resources in the city without increasing the total police time required.

Triad influence on the detection of crime in Hong Kong.

We use bootstrap data envelopment analysis, adjusting for endogeneity, to examine police efficiency in detecting crime in Hong Kong. We address the following: (i) is there a correlation between the detection of crime and triad influence? (ii) does the level of triad influence affect the efficiency in translating inputs (police strength) into outputs (crime detection)? and (iii) how can the allocation of policing resources be adjusted to improve crime detection? We find that nighty-eight percent of Hong Kong police districts in our sample were found to be inefficient in the detection of crime. Variation was found across districts regarding the detection of violent, property and other crimes. Most inefficiencies and potential improvements in the detection of crime were found in the categories violent and other crimes. We demonstrate how less efficient police districts can modify police resourcing decisions to better detect certain crime types while maintaining current levels of resourcing. Finally, we highlight how the method we outline improves efficiency estimation by adjusting for endogeneity and measuring the conditional efficiency of each district (i.e. the efficiency of crime detection taking the instrumental variables (e.g. influence of triads) into consideration). The use of frontier models to assist in evaluating policing performance can lead to improved efficiency, transparency, and accountability in law enforcement, ultimately resulting in better public safety outcomes and publicly funded resource allocation.

Ethical Resource Allocation in Policing: Why Policing Requires a Different Approach from Healthcare

This article examines the inherently ethical nature of resource allocation in policing. Decision-makers must make trade-offs between values such as efficiency vs. equity, individual vs. collective benefit, and adopt principles of distribution which allocate limited resources fairly. While resource allocation in healthcare has been the subject of extensive discussion in both practitioner and academic literature, ethical resource allocation in policing has received almost no attention. We first consider whether approaches used in healthcare settings would be suitable for policing. Whilst there are some high-level similarities in the relevant ethical considerations and processes—such as aiming for efficient and equitable resource deployment—there are also fundamental differences between the two settings, which we argue necessitate a different approach. These differences include: (1) greater diversity and incommensurability of the benefits of policing, (2) more frequent non-linearity in returns on policing investment, (3) greater “ethical divisibility” (permissible scaling down) of programs in policing, (4) a requirement to assess “need” for policing resources at the collective (rather than individual) level, and (5) clearer primacy of equity considerations in policing. Having drawn out the implications of these differences, we sketch some tentative proposals for ethical resource allocation in policing.

Juridical Analysis of Law Enforcement of the Criminal Act of Placement of Illegal Indonesian Migrant Workers (PMI) in the Riau Islands Province (Research Study at the Riau Islands Regional Police's Ditreskrimum)

The aim of the research is to find out the legal arrangements for the placement of illegal Indonesian Migrant Workers (PMI) nationally, to find out the implementation of law enforcement for the criminal act of placing illegal Indonesian Migrant Workers (PMI) by the Riau Islands Regional Police, to find out the obstacles and solutions to law enforcement for criminal acts of placement. Illegal Indonesian Migrant Workers (PMI) by the Riau Islands Police. The research method for this thesis is normative juridical (legal research) through literature study with an empirical juridical approach (sociological juridical) through field studies aimed at gaining legal knowledge empirically. The results of the research show that the legal regulation of the placement of illegal Indonesian Migrant Workers (PMI) nationally is regulated in several articles in Law Number 18 of 2017 concerning the Protection of Indonesian Migrant Workers which regulates all aspects of the migrant worker sector starting from employer permits, equipment and documents. must be fulfilled by prospective workers as well as criminal provisions for parties involved in criminal acts of illegal migrant workers. The implementation of law enforcement for the crime of illegal placement of Indonesian Migrant Workers (PMI) by the Riau Islands Regional Police has not yet run optimally because there are still many criminal acts of illegal migrant workers in the Riau Islands region, even though the police have optimized their performance in law enforcement efforts requiring cooperation with other agencies. related agencies such as the Ministry of Manpower, BNP2TKI (National Agency for the Placement and Protection of Indonesian Workers), It is recommended that the police improve their performance in both preventive and repressive efforts. The public should be careful when choosing job placement offers abroad and always ensure that the job offer is official. To the Government to increase police resources both by increasing human resources and by increasing the budget to support the eradication of criminal acts of illegal migrant workers.

Balancing act: Assessing police efficiency amidst staffing shortages through inverse data envelopment analysis

Abstract Police agencies are amid a significant staffing shortage. Scholars and police managers warn about the effects of understaffing on public safety and security. Studies have examined the impacts of events like the Floyd protests had on police resignations. This study uses a linear programming method, Inverse data envelopment analysis (InvDEA), to estimate the efficient allocation of police resources using a simulated agency with 150 sectors. The first decision-making scenario simulated the challenge many agencies currently face with staffing shortages. Reallocating officers and civilians from inefficient to efficient units improved performance by 4.7% without additional officers. Results of the second and third decision-making scenarios indicate a need to reallocate resources by 23% and 19%, respectively. These findings contribute to the scarce literature on police staff allocation. In addition, the methodology employed in this study is helpful for police managers to make accurate operational decisions when combined with changes to the efficiency frontier that reflect the environment in which they operate.

경찰의 초동대응 체계 개선을 위한 드론 활용 방안 연구

This study explores the necessity and potential of utilizing drone technology in police operations. To address the increasing crime rates and complex safety issues in modern society, the efficient allocation of police resources and swift response are becoming imperative. This research analyzes how drone technology can meet these demands and how AI can enhance the operation of drones from both theoretical and practical perspectives. The use of drones in first response scenarios can reduce arrival times at scenes, enable monitoring over extensive areas, and facilitate accurate situation awareness, thus supporting the police in taking quicker and more effective measures. However, the integration of such technologies necessitates consideration of the legal and ethical issues that may arise, as well as preventive measures against potential technological errors and privacy invasions. The study underscores the need for a legal basis, procedural legitimacy, and safe operational conditions when actively utilizing drones and AI technology in police activities, and presents specific recommendations for this purpose.

EXPLORING THE EXPERIENCES OF PERCEIVED NEIGHBORHOOD SAFETY OF BLACK ADULTS: RESULTS FROM THE THINK PHRESH STUDY

Abstract Racial residential segregation is a complex socio-economic phenomenon that affects many communities across the U.S. Such residential segregation is a result of historic policies in the United States including redlining and inequitable urban redevelopment. Black adults who live in segregated areas face challenges and experience psychosocial stressors, including poverty, crime, and feeling unsafe in one’s neighborhood which are risk factors for many negative health and cognitive outcomes. To date, few studies have explored perspectives on experiences of racial residential segregation, and specifically, neighborhood safety trajectories that may relate to healthy aging. This qualitative study used data from a sample of participants in adulthood and older adulthood (aged 35-89, Mage= 64 years) from two predominantly black, low-income neighborhoods that have had different histories with regard to disinvestment and systemic racist policies. We used 60 in-depth interviews to explore perceptions around neighborhood safety trajectories and their perceived impact on aging outcomes. The results highlight several dimensions of perceived changes in neighborhood safety over time and how these are perceived to relate to aging outcomes, e.g., psychological stress. The findings also show a few differences between the two neighborhoods concerning policing strategies, individual behaviors, and resource availability, all of which may contribute to perceptions of safety. Implications of this work highlight the importance of developing culturally relevant interventions that target upstream social determinants of healthy aging and health disparities.

Drug transactions and the dark web: Public perceptions of the locational setting of offenders and support for drug policy outcomes

BackgroundBoth legal and extra-legal factors influence judicial and non-judicial opinions about persons who use drugs. Yet, how the locational setting of drug transactions influences public perceptions of drug control policies remains understudied. In particular, the public's view of drug exchanges on the dark web could directly and indirectly influence drug policy, legal decision making, and spending decisions. The study's aim is to identify whether the location of a drug exchange, specifically the dark web, influences public preferences for drug policy and police resourcing. MethodsA sample (n = 1359) from the United States of America was recruited and participated in a discrete choice experiment. The participants compared and repeatedly chose across five iterations between two drug offender profiles with nine set features, such as the location of drug transactions, all with randomized levels. The resulting sample included a total of 13,590 contest pairs. ResultsAveraging over the non-locational attributes, respondents indicated that, compared to the dark web, several locational settings for drug exchange (such as the street corner, social media, and an unknown location) needed fewer police resources and offenders were less deserving of longer punishments. No statistically significant difference was found for opinions about harm to communities, and offenders involved in drug exchanges on university campuses were considered more deserving of a substance abuse treatment program than offenders on the dark web. ConclusionThere appears to be a preference for more punitive criminal justice policies for drug transactions occurring on the dark web relative to some other common settings. Such preferences may indicate a novelty effect driven by negative sentiment surrounding the dark web or a perceived deficit in the police's ability to deal with drug crimes on the dark web. These findings suggest that the public may prefer supply-side policing efforts over demand-side policies, which emphasizes harm reduction.

Staying in the Game: Activation, Vigilance, and Normalization of Emergency Calls in Austria

Influential accounts of vigilance and lateral surveillance assume that the shift from centralized to more dispersed, governmental forms of surveillance is driven by postmodern tendencies towards an almost unlimited proliferation of suspicion and surveillance. In contrast to former research, this analysis of Austrian public discourse on police emergency services highlights attempts to control, limit, and normalize civil vigilance. Drawing from the theoretical frameworks of governmentality studies, the paper shows that emergency services are a paradigmatic field for the analysis of participatory surveillance because they align interventionist police power with people’s security activities. With the proliferation of an activation paradigm in Austrian policing their role shifts significantly. In this paradigm, a double-sided responsibilization and mobilization of citizens and police is propagated. On one side, active vigilance is discursively promoted to link local subjective awareness of anomalies and (dis)order with rapid police response. On the other side, in a phase of intense criticism, emergency services are subject to reconfigurations themselves: preemptive interventions, a normalization of response time, efficiency-oriented reorganization of its structure, and their application for the management of police resources and forces. However, it is shown that vigilance and response are always controlled, for example, by public rejections of particular kinds of hypervigilant activities. Emergency service discourse not only fosters but also limits vigilance. Therefore, normalization of oversteering hypervigilance points to paradoxes of governmental practices of activation in crime control.