Police Custody Suites Research Articles

Statistical analysis plan for the SOLUTIONS randomised controlled trial with internal pilot: Solution Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) in 10–17 year olds presenting at police custody

BackgroundWithin England, children and young people entering police custody are referred to Liaison and Diversion (L&D) teams. These teams liaise with healthcare and other support services aiming to divert children and young people away from the criminal justice system. Although targeted psychological interventions are not typically offered to children and young people by L&D teams, evidence suggests that Solution Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) leads to a reduction in internalising and externalising behaviour problems.MethodsA two-arm individually randomised controlled trial (RCT) with internal pilot and process evaluation will be conducted with approximately 448 children and young people aged 10–17 years presenting at police custody suites who are referred to the L&D team or recruited via online routes if they have previously presented at any police custody suite in England. The primary outcome is the Self-Report Delinquency Measure (SRDM) at 6 months post-randomisation. Analyses will be performed using intention-to-treat.ResultsThe statistical analysis plan (SAP) for the trial is described. The plan details of analyses to be undertaken which will be reported in the primary and any secondary publications. The plan was developed and published prior to locking our database and unblinding to treatment allocation.DiscussionThis RCT will evaluate the effectiveness of SFBT in reducing offending behaviours in CYP presenting at police custody suites including testing of moderating factors and sensitivity of the primary analyses.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov ISRCTN14195235. Registered on June 16, 2023.

Police custody in rural Scotland: negotiating boundaries, risk and organisational change

PurposeThis paper explores the challenging nexus of police custody, risk and intra-organisational boundaries in the context of a recently reformed national police service. Police custody is an often-hidden aspect of policing, away from the public gaze and scrutiny. Although there is increasing recognition of the importance of rural policing (e.g. Harkness (2020); Mawby and Yarwood (2011); Ruddell and Jones (2020); Yarwood and Wooff (2016)), there has been little or no focus on rural police custody. This paper seeks to begin to redress this by focussing on the challenges faced by rural police custody in the context of large-scale organisational change.Design/methodology/approachThis paper draws on data from a study funded by the Scottish Institute for Policing Research (2016–2018), entitled “Measuring Risk and Efficiency in Police Custody in Scotland”. The paper adopts a qualitative methodology to develop an understanding of the varying nature of police custody across Scotland. Two contrasting case study locations were selected, one urban and one rural. 12 semi-structured interviews and 15 hours of observation were carried out. Data was transcribed, coded and analysed and thematic analysis enabled themes to be developed. This paper draws on the data from the rural custody suite.FindingsDrawing on the theoretical framework of Giacomantonio (2014) and more recent considerations of abstract policing Terpstra et al. (2019), this paper offers insights into the ways that police custody in rural Scotland has been organised, against the backdrop of challenging organisational change. I argue that as policing services in Scotland have become increasingly “abstract” from communities, police custody as a national division has witnessed the impact of this more greatly than other parts of local policing. Intra-organisational management around staffing has led to complex management of risk, illustrating some of the challenges of national organisational change on police custody.Originality/valueThis paper focuses on the impact of large scale organisational change on rural police custody and intra-organisational relationships and dynamics. Rural policing is still a largely neglected area of study and rural police custody is even less understood. This paper therefore provides an original contribution by focusing on this under-researched area of policing. It also illustrates complexity around risk, staffing and management of people being held in rural police custody suites. It is therefore of value to policing scholars in other contexts, as well as rural criminology more generally. It has applicability to international contexts where macro level policing reform is occurring.

Solutions Trial: Solution Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) in 10–17-year-olds presenting at police custody: a randomised controlled trial

BackgroundWithin England, children and young people (CYP) who come into police custody are referred to Liaison and Diversion (L&D) teams. L&D teams have responsibility for liaising with healthcare and other support services while working to divert CYP away from the criminal justice system but have traditionally not provided targeted psychological interventions to CYP. Considering evidence that Solution Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) leads to a reduction in internalising and externalising behaviour problems in CYP, the aim of this randomised controlled trial (RCT) was to determine whether there is a difference between services as usual (SAU) plus SFBT offered by trained therapists working within a L&D team, and SAU alone, in reducing offending behaviours in 10–17-year-olds presenting at police custody.MethodsDesign: two-arm individually RCT with internal pilot and process evaluation.Participants: N = approximately 448 CYP aged 10–17 years presenting at one of three police custody suites in the area served by Lancashire and South Cumbria NHS Foundation Trust (LSCFT) who are referred to the L&D team. Participants will be recruited and allocated to intervention:control on a 1:1 basis. Interviews will be performed with 30–40 CYP in the intervention arm, 15 CYP in the control arm, up to 20 parents/guardians across both arms, up to 15 practitioners, and up to 10 site staff responsible for screening CYP for the trial.Intervention and control: Those allocated to the intervention will be offered SAU plus SFBT, and control participants will receive SAU only.Primary outcome: CYP frequency of offending behaviours assessed through the Self-Report Delinquency Measure (SRDM) at 12 months post-randomisation.Secondary outcomes: criminal offence data (national police database); emotional and behavioural difficulties (self-report and parent/guardian reported); gang affiliation (self-report).Process evaluation: evaluation of acceptability and experiences of the CYP, parents/guardians, site staff and practitioners; fidelity of SFBT delivery.DiscussionThis two-arm individually RCT will evaluate the effectiveness of SFBT in reducing offending behaviours in CYP presenting at police custody suites within the area served by LSCFT. Our process evaluation will assess the fidelity of delivery of SFBT, the factors affecting implementation, the acceptability of SFBT in CYP aged 10–17 years and recruitment and reach. We will also examine systems and structures for future delivery, therefore assessing overall scalability.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov ISRCTN14195235. Registered on June 16, 2023.

An exploratory study into cell approaches for intelligence collection from detainees within an English Police Custody Suite

Abstract The value of intelligence gathered from cell approaches in police custody suites remains largely unexplored, presenting a crucial area for research. This study explores the collection of Human Intelligence (HUMINT) and the generation of Source (Covert Human Intelligence Source, CHIS) referrals during cell approaches. Data was collected from 102 cell approaches by which 54 were undertaken by dedicated intelligence officers and 48 by detectives in a police custody suite in England over a 3-month period. Results revealed that detectives, when tasked, were significantly more successful than dedicated intelligence officers in securing intelligence during cell approaches and to make source (CHIS) referrals. A detainee’s willingness to engage was associated with intelligence provision, with revenge and lifestyle as key motivating factors. Detainees were significantly more likely to provide intelligence post-charge rather than pre-charge, though the time of day and detainee age showed no significant correlations with intelligence gathering. This study discussed the importance of optimizing intelligence collection and source referrals during cell approaches.

Tracking Procedural Justice in Processing Detainees: Coding Evidence from CCTV Cameras in Three Police Custody Suites

Research questionHow closely do custody suite encounters between detainees and custody suite officers (CSOs) match the procedural standards for decision makers treating people who are subject to their authority? To what degree does measurement of procedural justice displayed by CSOs on closed-circuit television (CCTV) records vary across detainees, CSOs and custody suites?DataArrest records for July, August, and September 2020 across three custody suites in the East of England were obtained and a random sample of 150 encounters selected for analysis. MethodsEncounters between CSOs and detainees at the booking-in stage as captured on pre-recorded CCTV were coded into four elements of procedural justice: voice, trustworthy motives, impartiality, and respect. Non-verbal communications and dialogue were also examined. FindingsOverall, custody suite officers demonstrated high levels of respect and neutrality in dealing with detainees. However, they showed relatively less care for the wellbeing of the detainees and did not offer them enough opportunities to ‘tell their side of the story’ (‘voice’). Further analysis revealed statistically significant variations across the three custody suites in the level of opportunities offered to detainees to have an input in discussing the decision-making. We also found evidence that as length of service as police officers and in custody roles increased, the observed level of expression of ‘trustworthy motives’ displayed decreased. Finally, detainee compliance with officers was greater when respect and care for the wellbeing of detainees were more pronounced. ConclusionsA tracking study can help identify police units and police officers with greater concentrations of procedural justice deficits. Such evidence can support more targeted training to improve the delivery of procedural justice, and enhance public confidence in policing.

Experience-based co-design (EBCD) with young people who offend: Innovating methodology to reach marginalised groups.

The mental health needs of young people who offend have become more widely recognised and attempting to meet these needs is now a global priority for governments and health agencies. Young people who offend experience a range of complex difficulties and have significantly worse health and social outcomes than their mainstream counterparts. These problems usually persist and often increase in severity through adolescence and into later life. There is growing acceptance of the potential value of co-designing services that recognise and address problems to improve the outcomes of young people with mental health problems yet to date, this methodological approach remains relatively unexplored in forensic service provision. Experience-based co-design (EBCD) is an approach to healthcare improvement that enables staff and service users to jointly co-design services. Central to the approach is the idea that understanding the experiences of service users and the ‘touchpoints’ (e.g., critical points or moments) in their journey through a service are integral to service improvement. The aim of this study was to explore whether EBCD could be applied to facilitate recognition of, and service developments for, young people presenting in community forensic settings. Qualitative methods used in this study included: observational fieldwork in four police custody suites (n = 30 hours), in-depth interviews with staff in community forensic services (n = 13) and researcher staff (n = 7). In this paper, the challenges of applying EBCD in community forensic settings with this population were: working with and across agencies; gaining access to participants; understanding knowledge and power dimensions amongst participants and understanding the context. This paper argues that innovative approaches to discovering the touchpoints for young people who offend – a key component of the EBCD approach - through combining analyses of secondary data and direct observations in community forensic settings can facilitate engagement with these specialist services and so provide access to relevant information about a group (i.e., young people who offend) who may be unable to participate directly in the EBCD process.

Highlighting "Risky Remands" Through Prisoner Death Investigations: People With Very Severe Mental Illness Transitioning From Police and Court Custody Into Prison on Remand.

Prison suicide/self-inflicted death is an international public health crisis, harming stakeholders including bereaved families, prisoners, prison staff and death investigators. England and Wales' record prison suicide numbers in 2016 cost at least £400 million. Death rates are an indicator of prison safety, and unsafe prisons mean unsafe societies. I present four case studies of people with very severe mental illness who were remanded to prison from police and/or court custody and went on to take their own lives in prison. I use publicly available data from Ombudsman and Coronial death investigations in England and Wales, highlighting that these accessible sources could be more widely mobilized to reduce the substantial harms and costs of prisoner deaths. Case studies include three men (Lewis Francis, Jason Basalat and Dean Saunders) and one woman (Sarah Reed) who took their own lives between January 2016 and April 2017. All four people were clearly very mentally unwell at the time of their alleged offense and remand to prison. I develop the concept of “risky remands” to highlight that people with very severe mental illness being remanded to prison is a particularly problematic practice. I highlight the implications of people with very severe mental illness transitioning into prison in the first place, arguing that being remanded to prison is not an acceptable or safe pathway into healthcare. I illustrate that police custody suites and courts may lack awareness of mechanisms and/ or the practical ability to transfer ill detainees charged with a serious crime to mental health facilities for assessment and/ or treatment. My analysis amplifies and extends recent Criminal Justice Joint Inspection findings that it is unacceptable to use prisons as a “place of safety,” and that the Department of Health and Social Care, NHS England and the Welsh Government must increase the supply of medium and high secure beds. Moreover, Ombudsman investigations did not engage with the remand transition, effectively legitimizing this risky practice for very ill people. As such, my analysis also counters the apparent “problem of implementation” in prison oversight, instead questioning what reviewers recommend, based on which evidence.

The coproduction work of healthcare professionals in police custody: destabilising the care-custody paradox

ABSTRACT Forensic medicine has traditionally been understood as constituting a tension between medical and legal roles: a care-custody paradox. Rather than reinforcing this paradox, however, in this paper I will draw upon a study of Healthcare Professionals working within police custody suites in England in order to show the ways that they coproduce [Jasanoff, S., 2004. States of knowledge: the co-production of science and social order. London: Routledge] their work with the aim of simultaneously meeting the requirements of both their police (for instance PACE codes) and healthcare (for instance the Nursing and Midwifery Code of Practice) responsibilities. Focusing on acts of ‘mundane care’ [Brownlie, J. and Spandler, H., 2018. Materialities of mundane care and the art of holding one’s own. Sociology of health and illness, 40 (2), 256–269], the typification of detainees and the use of detention cells as risk management tools, I will show that rather than undergoing an existential crisis, Healthcare Professionals mobilise coproduced practices in order to perform their work successfully, thereby further enabling police and detention officers to achieve their custody objectives.

Effective participation of mentally vulnerable defendants in the English magistrates’ courts: The crucial role of liaison and diversion

AbstractMentally vulnerable defendants who are unable to effectively participate in their trial in the magistrates’ courts are unprotected by the law relating to unfitness to plead. The conveyor‐belt justice offered in the magistrates’ courts means that these defendants are at risk of being overlooked. This article aims to demonstrate that, in addition to police custody suites, a permanent presence of Liaison and Diversion (L&D) teams within all English magistrates’ courts is crucial to the protection of vulnerable defendants who are unable to effectively participate in their trial. Moreover, the presence of L&D teams within all magistrates’ courts might provide a more pragmatic and compassionate solution than legal reforms to those vulnerable individuals who are unable to understand the trial process. This improvement is achievable given the cost efficiencies highlighted by the RAND Europe Outcome Evaluation, published in April 2021.

Assessing and managing people exposed to conducted energy device (Taser) discharge.

The use of conducted energy devices - better known under the brand name Taser - by police officers is subject to scrutiny. Consequently, the clinical assessment and management of people who have been exposed to Taser discharge is also subject to scrutiny. In 2021 the Conducted Energy Device Joint Working Group published a new guideline on assessment in police custody after Taser discharge. The guideline enables any appropriately trained and competent healthcare professional, including nurses, to undertake post-Taser assessments and determine the person's fitness to be detained in police custody. This would be done in the first instance by nurses working in police custody suites, but emergency department (ED) nurses may also be involved, as people who have been 'tasered' may need referral to the ED. This article explains how Tasers work, their physiological effects and potential complications, and the required approaches to clinical assessment and management as outlined in the new guideline.

Procedural justice as a reward to the compliant: an ethnography of police–citizen interaction in police custody

ABSTRACT This paper contributes to the literature on Procedural Justice Theory (PJT) by exploring its capacity to explain the dynamic interactions between police and citizens within the context of police detention. Analysis is based on observation and interviews in police custody suites (i.e. locations where arrested citizens are formally processed and held) within one of the larger metropolitan police forces in the UK. The qualitative thematic analysis highlights how, in order to adequately understand police–detainee interactions, it is critical that PJT properly recognises (a) the importance of context for framing ‘procedurally fair’ encounters, (b) the central role and consequences of categorisation, and (c) the role of power in shaping police–citizen encounters. The paper concludes by exploring the implications of this research for assumptions regarding the causal ordering often assumed in the PJT literature. Specifically, we suggest that procedural justice is more than merely a mechanistic route to achieving compliance but can also be conceptualised as a ‘reward’ by the powerful to those already willing to be subordinated and acquiescent.

What is the role of doctors in respect of suspects with mental health and intellectual disabilities in police custody?

People with severe mental illness and intellectual disabilities are overrepresented in the criminal justice system worldwide and this is also the case in Ireland. Following Ireland's ratification of the United Nations' Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities in 2018, there has been an increasing emphasis on ensuring access to justice for people with disabilities as in Article 13. For people with mental health and intellectual disabilities, this requires a multi-agency approach and a useful point of intervention may be at the police custody stage. Medicine has a key role to play both in advocacy and in practice. We suggest a functional approach to assessment, in practice, and list key considerations for doctors attending police custody suites. Improved training opportunities and greater resources are needed for general practitioners and psychiatrists who attend police custody suites to help fulfill this role.

Custody early warning scores; Do they predict patient deterioration in police custody?

This paper analyses the results of a three month trial based in a police custody suite, where we assigned a value; using the recently developed Custody Early Warning Score, to detainees arriving into police custody, as part of their ‘booking in’ process. We then compared this to the more established National Early Warning Scoring system and then looked at the predictive accuracy of these two systems and how they correlated to one another, when applied to three different clinical groups of detainees in police custody. Police Custody Sergeants and Custody Detention Officers continue to experience difficulties in identifying those detainees with health care needs; be they subtle, emerging or more evident. The introduction of a ‘track and trigger’ physiological scoring system has been seen to reduce morbidity in health care settings and so the adoption of an altered custodial version of such a system is an effort by some police forces to do likewise. Recent innovations in police custody have focussed on identifying and appropriately referring those detainees with mental health needs. There is a lack of research that examines the physical health needs of the custodial population and the risks that they might present. With detainee deaths and serious adverse events continuing to occur in police custody, forces are looking at ways to identify risk early on in the custodial process, to reduce such high profile occurrences. Police use of the Custody Early Warning Score system, is one effort to try and identify and reduce this risk, early on in the custodial process. ObjectiveIn an increasing number of police custody suites, the Custody Early Warning Score system has been, added to the normal, standardised police risk assessment process. This ‘track & trigger’ system has been adapted to the custody environment and is conducted by non-medical detention staff upon detainee arrival, in order to identify detainee morbidity and mortality risk. We wanted to test the predictive accuracy of this system at identifying detainee health need and prioritisation. We also wanted to know how well this tool correlated to another well-established monitoring tool and how accurate these two systems are at pre-empting the medical emergencies and hospital referrals that occur in police custody. Results1′163 detainees were assessed by medical staff over a three month period, with staff blinded to the assigned scoring. 276 of these were identified as requiring further clinical assessment following this scoring with 29 of the 33 patients referred to hospital by medical staff, also scored, with some declining assessment or were serious enough to abandon scoring. Whilst we found a small correlation between increased scores and referral to hospital; we found that there was little correlation between assessment scores in general and the need for referral to hospital. We also found that most clinical risk was associated with lower or low scores. ConclusionsThe scoring systems that we assessed were not sensitive enough to identify health need in the detainee population, due to frequent, altered physiological parameters. Life threatening conditions have low assessment scores, not reflective of the seriousness of medical conditions, nor the potential for rapid deterioration. Such scoring systems add little to the risk assessment process, with low scores allowing for complacency and a false reassurance, when using a system designed for very different circumstances.

Containment and care? A qualitative interview study exploring police custody staff views about delivering brief alcohol interventions to heavy drinking arrestees

Heavy alcohol use and associated needs are prevalent amongst arrestees. The custody suite offers an opportunity to identify and intervene with this population. However, it is unclear whether functions of care can be effectively delivered within an environment of containment. This study aimed to examine custody staff experiences of screening and delivering brief alcohol interventions to heavy drinking arrestees. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 25 custody staff (detention officers and assessment, intervention and referral staff), involved in a pilot feasibility trial of alcohol screening and brief interventions in the police custody suite. We examined the tension between containment and care using concepts of role security and therapeutic commitment to guide our analysis. Our findings show that custody staff considered brief interventions to be legitimate in the custody suite setting, although there were differing views relating to which staff are best placed to deliver them. Detention officers reported vacillating therapeutic commitment to intervening with heavy drinking arrestees, compounded by some arrestees being perceived to be ‘undeserving’ of care. Tensions inherent in the need for ‘containment’ as well as ‘care’ must be addressed if brief alcohol interventions are to be implemented within the custody suite.

Getting the Sergeants on your side: the importance of interpersonal relationships and cultural interoperability for generating interagency collaboration between nurses and the police in custody suites.

In this article, I contribute to the literature around interagency collaboration, especially between law enforcement and health care, by reconciling the previous work of Sarah Charman (2014) with the interprofessional teamwork literature. Drawing upon a semi-structured interview-based study with 20 custody nurses working in English police custody suites (analysed using Framework Analysis), I explore the ways they are able to achieve interagency collaboration with a particular police officer, the Desk Sergeant. I argue that nurses accomplish interagency interoperability by interacting regularly with the Desk Sergeant, anticipating their needs and limiting their own goals to those that are commensurate with the Desk Sergeant's, notably providing information and avoiding deaths in custody. Such practices are similar to the strategies of 'Cultural Interoperability' noted by Charman (2014); however, this study also identifies that such strategies are only available once a successful working relationship has formed between Desk Sergeant and nurse, and as a result, similarly to the findings of interprofessional teamwork studies, the success or failure of attempts to collaborate across agencies is underpinned by interpersonal relations. The paper concludes by commenting on the importance of analysing both the interpersonal and organisation levels when studying collaboration.

Development of RapidHIT® ID using NGMSElect™ Express chemistry for the processing of reference samples within the UK criminal justice system

The RapidHIT® ID is a new instrument which has been designed specifically for non-technical users in non-laboratory environments, for example police custody suites or border control. The development studies presented here were performed using the AmpFℓSTR® NGMSElect™ Express STR kit with single source reference samples. The system has been successfully optimised for extraction, PCR and electrophoresis. Once optimised studies on sensitivity, in terms of DNA input template, sample repeatability and instrument reproducibility have shown that the instrument is capable of producing robust profiles within an 85min, window, using mock reference buccal samples. This work has been carried out within the validation framework provided by the United Kingdom Forensic Science Regulator and is a key stage in the validation of the RapidHIT® ID for use in custody suites within the UK criminal justice system.

Alcohol Screening and Brief Intervention in Police Custody Suites: Pilot Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial (AcCePT).

There is a clear association between alcohol use and offending behaviour and significant police time is spent on alcohol-related incidents. This study aimed to test the feasibility of a trial of screening and brief intervention in police custody suites to reduce heavy drinking and re-offending behaviour. We achieved target recruitment and high brief intervention delivery if this occurred immediately after screening. Low rates of return for counselling and retention at follow-up were challenges for a definitive trial. Conversely, high consent rates for access to police data suggested at least some outcomes could be measured remotely. A three-armed pilot Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial with an embedded qualitative interview-based process evaluation to explore acceptability issues in six police custody suites (north east and south west of the UK). Interventions included: 1. Screening only (Controls), 2. 10 min Brief Advice 3. Brief Advice plus 20 min of brief Counselling. Of 3330 arrestees approached: 2228 were eligible for screening (67%) and 720 consented (32%); 386 (54%) scored 8+ on AUDIT; and 205 (53%) were enroled (79 controls, 65 brief advice and 61 brief counselling). Follow-up rates at 6 and 12 months were 29% and 26%, respectively. However, routinely collected re-offending data were obtained for 193 (94%) participants. Indices of deprivation data were calculated for 184 (90%) participants; 37.6% of these resided in the 20% most deprived areas of UK. Qualitative data showed that all arrestees reported awareness that participation was voluntary, that the trial was separate from police work, and the majority said trial procedures were acceptable. Despite hitting target recruitment and same-day brief intervention delivery, a future trial of alcohol screening and brief intervention in a police custody setting would only be feasible if routinely collected re-offending and health data were used for outcome measurement. ISRCTN number: 89291046.

Contextualising health screening risk assessments in police custody suites \u2013 qualitative evaluation from the HELP-PC study in London, UK

BackgroundIn the UK, police custody officers have a responsibility to screen for health morbidity and vulnerability among detainees. This study aimed to develop an understanding of the barriers to performing effective health screening in police custody suites, understand the impact of screening tools on practice within the custody suite, and to identify factors that could hinder or facilitate the future implementation of a new screening intervention in this environment.MethodsA qualitative study was conducted alongside a quantitative evaluation of a novel screening tool. Qualitative methods included observation of the custody environment, semi-structured interviews with police staff, and elicitation of comments from detainees about their experiences of screening. Data were analysed inductively using thematic analysis. Normalization Process Theory (NPT) was used to inform data collection and as a framework for higher level analysis of findings.ResultsFive overall constructs were identified that develop understanding of the integration of health screening within custody: the workability of risk assessment screening tools; the effect of the custody environment and the people therein; shifts in professional roles and interrelationships amongst staff; cultural responses to risk and liability in police work; how infrastructure, knowledge and skills can impact on detainee safety.ConclusionsHealth and risk assessment screening in police custody is a complex and demanding activity which extends beyond the delivery of a screening tool. Professional roles, the demanding environment and police culture impact on the overall process. Recommendations for improved integration of health and risk assessment screening in wider police custody practice are proposed.

Exploring the intersections between novel psychoactive substances (NPS) and other substance use in a police custody suite setting in the north east of England

Aims: Novel psychoactive substances (NPS), a range of plant-based/synthetic substances that mimic effects of other illicit substances (e.g. cannabis), are now illegal in the United Kingdom (May 2016) to produce/supply. Negative behavioural consequences of NPS use mean that users frequently transgress the law are arrested and detained in police custody suites. Evidence shows a link between traditional substance use and offending behaviour, with significant police time spent on alcohol-related incidents. We explore the intersections between NPS and other substances with police staff and users in custody; specifically the similarities and differences in treatment, management and policing of these substances.Methods: A qualitative study using semistructured interviews and thematic analysis. We recruited 15 police staff (4 women/11 men) and 25 NPS users (9 women/16 men).Results: Police staff perceived NPS users to be extremely volatile in custody and reported feeling less knowledgeable about how to manage and respond to their needs compared to other substance users (e.g. alcohol, heroin). Users rarely took NPS in isolation and often compared them to other illicit substances, balancing effects versus costs.Conclusion: NPS use has a striking effect on custody work, primarily because of unpredictable user behaviour, adding further pressure to already overstretched police staff.

Mental health, vulnerability and risk in police custody

PurposeThe issue of mental health and policing is a subject that has been debated from a number of different perspectives. The purpose of this paper is to report on the findings of a case study that explored mental health difficulties and vulnerability within police custody.Design/methodology/approachThe design of the study was qualitative, and it utilised telephone, semi-structured interviews with all levels of the custody staff. This approach was taken because the aim of the study was to explore how people in different roles within the organisation worked to safeguard vulnerable people in custody.FindingsThe findings from this study identified a number of interesting themes that could be explored further in later studies. Overall, the respondents expressed frustration that vulnerable people find themselves in police custody for low-level crime, when it could have been avoided with improved mental health services in the community. Additionally, the findings demonstrated that despite the processes that are designed to safeguard the detainee, tensions still exist including, timely access to mental health assessments, appropriate training and support for staff and the use of appropriate adults.Research limitations/implicationsAlthough the study was small in scale, the custody facility delivered detainee facilities for about 5,000 individuals per year. The research and information obtained supported the police lead for mental health to identify opportunities for improving the customer journey, as well as recognising the need for further research to identify how officers and staff relate to vulnerable individuals in contact with the police service.Originality/valueDespite the limitations of the study, the findings have captured interesting data from a range of professionals working in one police custody suite, and therefore it presents a holistic overview of some key issues around mental health, vulnerability and safeguarding within the context of police custody.