Poetic Representation Research Articles

Poetry and the feminine from Behn to Cowper

Poetry and the Feminine from Behn to Cowper revisits the foundations of poetic representation and value for women and men poets of the Restoration and eighteenth century including Aphra Behn, John Dryden, Anne Killigrew, Anne Finch, and Alexander Pope. The author argues that fundamental to poetic innovation in this era are poets' revisions of feminine figures such as the muse and nature. Feminine Nature serves these poets as an infinitely expandable category of form that allows them to redefine poetry and poetic subjectivity. These poetic innovations include exploring the very grounds of mimesis, dismantling the hierarchy of poetic kinds, and using sensibility to yoke aesthetic and ethical values. Using an inclusive framework, the author presents a history of poetic change through women's and men's complex dialogues with poetic contexts and conventions. Jennifer Keith is Associate Professor at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro.

“He's not a White Man, He's A Small Bird Like You and Me”: Learning to Dance and Becoming Human in Southern New Ireland

In the Lak region of southern New Ireland, Papua New Guinea, music and dance performance is not a discreet element of society; it is in performances that communities show others who they are, what they consist of and how powerful they can be. It is also in a performance that “individuals” (in the Lak sense of the term) display their identity and reveal their spiritual capacity. In addition it is in performance that the visible reality of humans meets the invisible realm of the spirits. The movement and costume elements of performance are the visual poetic representation of the spirit and human worlds as cast by the local imagination. Unlike many Highlands Papua New Guinea societies, where dance movements are kept to a minimum in order to accommodate elaborate costumes (Strathern 1979:244), among the Lak, dance movement is vigorous, powerful, and essential to a community's successful existence. Dance movements, which predominantly occur on the vertical plane (see Kaeppler and Niles 1998:482), differ significantly in style between the sexes; as Eves has recognized (1998:54), these movements are a definitive aspect of “gender conceptualisations” in the region. For male performers (and this article mainly focuses on men's dances), performance is a physical and spiritual display that transforms participants into something more than human. This article begins by introducing several key Lak notions. Local concepts concerning the individual, relationships, community, and male and female are explored. The mythical foundation of society is introduced as a basis for comprehending some of the aesthetics and emotions that underpin performance. And Lak notions surrounding the relationships between space, gender, and power are examined to reveal the invisible boundaries that divide the physical landscape.

Poetry and Prose: Telling the Stories of Formerly Homeless Mentally Ill People

This article discusses some of the possible advantages of a poetic representation of social experience through a selection of four poems based on the words and organized by the salience and time sequence “logic” of participants in a study of formerly homeless mentally ill men and women who are currently housed. The initial report was a qualitative evaluation of the perceptions of this sample of formerly homeless mentally ill people of the benefits of the housing currently provided. It offers a categorical analysis of personal, relationship, and resource issues across childhood, adulthood, and since supported/supportive housing. The present analysis, based on the same interviews, destabilizes the original findings and offers a different window into the lives of the study participants. It does this through prose poems that replicate the language, the central issues of the participants, and their braided logic-in-use among other things.

“If you don’t mind going places without a map, follow me:” Re-stor(y)ing of self, place and educator

Metaphorically, going places without a map was a significant shift for me. Experiencing a sense of disconnection both professionally and personally became a catalyst to undertake a journey of re-connection. This coincided with an experience of displacement and what transpired was the making of new meanings around being an educator and around outdoor education. This paper is the beginning phase in articulating a new story. The self (in roles of researcher and educator) is situated in the story, which can be a vulnerable and risky place to be since this form of narrative is on the margins of contemporary outdoor education practice and research. The telling of this story serves to give presence to an alternative representation of experience and narrative. It draws on qualitative research methods from the phenomenological and hermeneutic traditions. This paper is an autoethnographic account, which aims to narrate the tensions, complexities and contradictions around the spaces of experience that are not so visible. Making meaning is demonstrated through the incorporation of poetic representation of experience in an attempt to capture the inter-subjective nature of these spaces. Writing as research is at the forefront and is a process of “re-stor(y)ing” (Pinn, 2003) that is about re-discovery, re-creating and re-visioning. Self-awareness occurs simultaneously in the writing process which I contend is a valuable and ethical way of engaging as a reflective practitioner. This paper will conclude by considering some implications with regard to the pedagogy of being an educator in the outdoors.

"None's Slave": Some Versions of Liberty in Donne's Satires 1 and 4

His skeptical, exploratory temperament inspires not only a search for freedom but also, as its inseparable correlative, an inquiry into its meaning and worth. In his elegies and lyrics, Donne explores different ways to remain “free” in love and sexual relations. In Satires 1 and 4, the focus of this essay, Donne explores different modes of asserting his freedom against a corrupt court, an oppressive legal system, and potentially enslaving social bonds. 3 Donne’s poetic representations of freedom were galvanized by his engagement with infl uential but diverging treatments of freedom in ancient poetry and moral philosophy concerning liberty as “doing what one pleases” and the value and limits of free speech. Historians of early modern conceptions of liberty have tended to focus on explicitly political and religious texts in relation to constitutional and ecclesiological controversies. 4 They have accordingly neglected the various ethical and poetic traditions out of which an early modern writer like Donne could articulate new visions of liberty. 5 While the defense of a person’s “freedom to do as he likes” (to quote John Stuart Mill) has often been associated with modern liberalism, the formulation is ancient. 6 Justinian’s Institutes defi ned libertas as the “natural faculty” of “doing what one wishes” [quod cuique facere libet] unless “prohibited by force or law,” a defi nition adopted in Henry de Bracton’s thirteenth-century treatise, De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae, which remained an authoritative textbook on English law in the early modern period. 7 Yet early modern ethical discourse often followed ancient philosophers in denying that liberty was equivalent to simply doing as one pleases, which was rather an instance of immoral “license,” that is, an excess or abuse of liberty. 8 In Plato’s Republic, Socrates identifi ed doing just as one pleases as a form of license typical of democratic regimes, in which men confuse lawlessness with liberty.

Robin Warner (review)

536 Reviews revenge. The author is entirely right to point to the maternal-feminine as the keystone to this poetics. Castro is shown to present a farmore polarized, disjointed, and dissonant version of the nation than is generally acknowledged. The section 'Poetic Ethnogenesis and the Feminine', which considers the writing of the nation, the madre patria, and poetic representations of the land in terms of the maternal-feminine, is one of the more successful. Geoffrion-Vinci argues that Castro does not employ the mother figure as a symbol of Galician national harmony, nor solely to represent Gali? cia as the victim of abuse, but rather casts it as 'the bastard child' that takes on the role of matriarch and rejects the paternal patria (p. 104). Seldom is the mother in Castro's poetry homely or cosy; rather she is a witch, a vixen, an aggressive and disruptive figure who subverts any nineteenth-century domestic notion of motherhood. This line of enquiry might have been expanded, particularly with reference to the way Castro constructs an ethnic identity not only through the figure of the mother but also through the figureof the sexed, desiring female subject. Whether this female symbolism has anything to do with Castro's own sexuality or ability to have children is not the issue. An over-literal interpretation of fever, weight loss, and the 'unhealthy discharge of bodily fluids' (p. 73) in the poetry merely detracts from the emphasis on language as symbolic practice. Neither should the 'yo' in Castro's poetry be read as primarily autobiographical or her use of prosopopoeia be underestimated. There are some mistranslations which skew certain readings: for example, 'nino' is more often 'nest' than 'child' in Castro's poetry; and 'literata' as used by Murguia in defence of his wife does not mean that Castro was 'unlettered' but that she was not a member of the literati, that is, an affected blue-stocking. Despite these reservations, in drawing attention to the many permutations of the maternal-feminine in Castro's poetry Geoffrion-Vinci has made a major contribution to Castro scholarship. It is hoped that the author will continue to develop her insights along the lines of 'writing the body' criticism, which Castro's poetry so clearly elicits. University of Nottingham Catherine Davies Powers of Utterance: A Discourse Approach to Works of Lorca, Machado, and ValleIncldn . By Robin Warner. (Bristol: University of Bristol Hispanic, Portuguese, and Latin American Monographs, 2) Bristol: HiPLAM. 2003. 197 pp. ?22. ISBN 0-86292-530-4. In an articulate, closely argued, and systematically developed study of a variety of areas within discourse studies, Robin Warner illustrates its useful application for literary works through a series of extended examinations of representative works by canonical early modern Spanish authors?Ramon Maria del Valle-Inclan, Antonio Machado, and Federico Garcia Lorca. As the title of his study suggests, the concept of discourse is broadly conceived and centres around the view that language use is contextually situated communication, or in even simpler terms, simply 'utterances'. What this means is that discourse analysis is never independent of the purposes or function which linguistic forms are designed to serve in human affairs.Drawing eclectically upon a related spectrum of tendencies within common-language philosophy, speech-act theory,and the linguistics of J.P. Grice, Warner fashions a working model by which to examine works of literature. Perhaps the most prominent feature of such analysis is that it is squarely focused on the purposive use of language in social and interpersonal settings while nevertheless remaining independent of a strong notion of intentionality which, notably, speechact theory demands and which therefore, according to Warner, limits its appeal in a literary context. Further, Warner argues that the attention given to the complex MLR, 100.2, 2005 537 interlocking of formal and functional aspects of discourse is central to the explo? ration of the relationship between text?that is, a work of literature, or as Warner suggests, adopting the term advanced by Nigel Fabb, 'verbal art'?and context. Also explicit in this approach is the assumption that there is a coherence or organizing structure that causes collections of words and sentences to coalesce around a unified discourse...

The Poetic Representation of the Religious in Kierkegaard’s Postscript

The Poetic Representation of the Religious in Kierkegaard’s Postscript

Literature, cultural identity and the limits of authenticity: a composite approach

AbstractAlthough tourism scholarship has paid much attention to the concept of authenticity in relation to the homogenisation of tourism representation, this term has limits that curb its usefulness for analysing subtle interrelations of place, representation and identity. Some recent work has attempted to recuperate authenticity by associating it with experience and activity, however we suggest that the concept of cultural identity allows for greater attention to the fluid movements of social power relations that inform the tourist site. By undertaking a comparative analysis of three global tourist sites located in the Middle East (Jerusalem), North America (Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan) and Europe (Isle of Wight), this article discusses the politics of representation vis à vis identity as manifested in a spectrum of tourism‐related literature ranging from pamphlets, maps and guidebooks, to more creative approaches in contemporary novels and poetry. This comparative survey of literature explores questions of identity on several fronts: first, it prompts questions about how religious, historical and national identities are formulated in and through the tourist site; second, it leads to an assessment of a site's claim to status as a work of art that prompts aesthetic identification; and finally, it allows one to consider how other works of art — in this case, novelistic or poetic representations — both affirm and question identities presented by standard tourist literature. These alternative textual representations demonstrate not only how cultural identity as represented in the tourist site is an active site of struggle, but also present alternative politics of place and identity that enable a greater diversity of interpretations of the tourist site. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

‘Shaped like a question mark’: found poetry from Herbert Blau's The Audience

Performance theorist Herbert Blau's The Audience (Baltimore and London, Johns Hopkins Press, 1990) is an important yet neglected theoretical text on theatre audience. Deconstructive, dense and allusive in nature, Blau's text creates a real challenge for his reader. This paper presents a study of The Audience employing what I am calling literature-voiced research poetry. This consists of found poems created from certain kinds of theoretical texts, particularly those that are, like Blau's, rich, thick and metaphorical in nature. In creating these found poems, I am moving into using an arts-based research methodology as a way of knowing within an inquiry process, as well as a way of analysing and representing data (Oberg, A., Arts-based educational research, Notes from presentation at Association for Graduate Education Students (AGES) meeting, University of Victoria, 18 March 2003). My dissertation, Marked by performance: a curriculum theory and poetics for audience in the performing arts (in progress), will include literature-voiced research poems as part of my literature review and will move into researcher-voiced and participant-voiced poems that attempt to capture the residue of performance, and how the experience of performance (specifically theatre performance) has the potential to mark us, to shake us to our core, as Aristotle, Artaud, Barker, Brecht, Grotowski, Nietzsche, and other theatre theorists have long-hypothesized. The completed study will present poetic co-created representations of how performing artists, critics and other highly-experienced audiences, as well as students of audience education (secondary and post-secondary), experience the residue of performances throughout their lives as significant cognitive, affective, social and even potentially profound spiritual events. It goes on to pose the question: what are the implications of these poetic understandings of audience-in-performance (AIP) for emerging curricula of audience and performance studies in education? Thus, the study is an attempt to express these almost inexpressible experiences through poetry for the curricular purpose that, within our increasingly dramatized and performative culture, audience-in-performance education is an important yet neglected aspect of art education and education in general.

The thematic tradition in black British literature and its poetic representation

The aim of this paper is to offer a thematic study of Black British Literature. The analysis covers the way in which Black British writers have dealt with the issues of childhood, old age, history, return to the homeland, identity, language, and hybridity. Each of those questions is exemplified with a number of poems that show one or some of the perspectives from which they can be considered. The overall study thus constitutes a revision of an integral part of contemporary English Literature that works at destabilizing the idea that “pure” cultural identities exist and that homogeneous national literary traditions are possible.

Poetic Representations in Sport and Physical Education: Insider Perspectives 1

As part of the emergence of new writing practices in the social sciences, qualitative researchers have begun to harness the potential of poetic representations as a means of analysing social worlds and communicating their findings to others. To date, this genre has been little used within the domains of sport and physical education. Accordingly, in this article, we provide examples of poetic representations and seek to generate insights into the process of their construction by exploring the perspectives of their authors. A rationale for choosing this genre is outlined and the potential benefits and risks of making this choice for both the researcher and the audience are considered. It is concluded that poetic representations are a worthy addition to the analytical repertoire in qualitative research.

Sakutaro¯ and the city

This paper addresses the changing image of the city in the poetry, prose and critical essays of the free verse poet Hagiwara Sakutaro¯ (1886–1942). Sakutaro¯'s growing disillusionment with Japan's modernisation and slavish imitation of Western models is reflected in changes in his poetic representations of the city, from a modern, sophisticated utopia, through the liberating home of the crowd, and the symbol of the existential despair of modern man, to the hallucination of a fevered imagination. The progressive disenchantment with the city in Sakutaro¯'s poetry is accompanied by a corresponding rise in his estimation of the countryside. We can also see the city as a metaphor for modernity and the West on the one hand, and the countryside a trope for Japan and tradition on the other. In calling for a fusion of elements derived from both Western and Japanese culture Hagiwara Sakutaro¯ sought to negotiate a distinctive Japanese modernity in the interwar period, but was, in the end, profoundly disappointed with the colourless intellectual desert he saw emerging from the blend.

Telling tales in sport and physical activity: a qualitative journey

Surveying the landscape scientific tales realist tales confessional tales autoethnography poetic representations ethnodrama fictional representations different tales and judgement calls.

Collaborative Meaning in Medieval Scribal Culture: The Otho Lazamon by Elizabeth J. Bryan

422 Reviews narrator. It also explores questions of authority,truth,and interpretation, and implicitlyalso of instabilities of patriarchal power, signalled in Henry son's famous question used in Pearsall's title. Intriguingly, this wide-ranging paper sometimes ventures into neo-New Critical methodology, and the critical values of 'intensity', unity in the form of 'connectivity' (meaning a 'composition full of echoes and anticipations' (p. 172)), and the primacy of 'the poem' and 'poetic representation', as objects of study separable from cultural discourses (pp. 179-82). Janet Cowan shows how the Middle English version of Boccaccio's De claris mulieribus responds with some complexity to the original'smisogynist ambiguities. Performance is central to Ralph Hanna's explo? ration of the themes of feasting and minstrelsy, mutability, and absence and presence in written and spoken texts in alliterative poetry, concluding with a demonstration of how the distinctly 'writerly' Destruction of Troy also 'parades its orality'. Characteristically proceeding by taking nothing for granted, and carefully negotiating his way through complex textual and codicological territory,getting beyond existing impasses, and finallyadvancing forward to what look like firmnew positions, Norman Blake's 'The Links in the Canterbury Tales' argues convincingly that extant links include authorial revisions. Similarly Julia Boffey and A. S. G. Edwards's * Middle English Verse in Chronicles' draws from a mass ofvaried data interesting and sound conclusions, including the frequency with which verse inserts are used for elegy and eulogy in later chronicles, the nationalistic tensions and xenophobia often ex? pressed through vernacular rhymes, and the possibility that transitions into different metres, or between verse and prose, for inserted songs may indicate modal shifts, including exemplary, summarizing functions, celebration, and reflection, and should not automatically be assumed simply to indicate prior popular existence forthe songs. This is a commendable collection, worthy of its dedicatee in its fund of good schol? arship, serious intellectual festiveness, and demonstration of the potential for fruitful interconnectedness in the analysis of aspects of texts, linguistic, literary,editorial, and codicological, that, as Waldron's work has always shown, yield most benefit to the subject when not pursued in isolation from each other. University of Liverpool Helen Phillips Collaborative Meaning inMedieval Scribal Culture: The Otho La^amon. By Elizabeth J. Bryan. (Editorial Theory and Literary Criticism) Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 2000. xx + 238pp. $49.50; ?31. ISBN 0-472-10949-9. La3amon's Brut is the earliest substantial surviving Middle English poem. Fate decreed that both surviving manuscripts, which date from the second half of the thir? teenth century, should enter the Cotton Library and sufferdamage in the Cotton fire of 1731. One of these, British Library MS Cotton Caligula A. ix, has generally been afforded a considerably greater degree of scholarly attention than the other, British Library MS Cotton Otho C. xiii, since it has been left substantially more complete. Elizabeth Bryan, however, feels that Otho has been unduly neglected and that it reveals 'a wealth of meaning in the cultural accretions that make up this manuscript text' (p. 59), that has not hithertobeen appreciated. The articulation of this 'meaning' forms the main subject of her book. The physical state of the Otho manuscript has considerable bearing on Bryan's study. Otho now comprises 146 vellum leaves, all to a greater or lesser degree damaged by fire,some of them very greatly. Bryan does not explain what led her to seek as an object of study a manuscript in which the evidential potentialities have been so crucially obscured, but perhaps the most striking point to make about her evidence is its paucity. The forms of 'cultural accretion' she finds significant are decorated initials MLR, 98.2, 2003 423 (78 instances), notae (11), rubricated words (6, together with a slightly larger number of letters touched in red). In quantitative terms these data do not seem a sufficient basis for useful conclusions at all, let alone to possess the 'wealth of meaning' Bryan asserts they contain. Indeed, apart from an evident interest in the history of King Arthur, the forms of decoration do not seem to offermuch clear insight into anything. The design of her book seems tacitly to acknowledge this evidential shortfall. For, in spite of the...

Speaking and Silent Women in Upon Appleton House

Ostensibly, Andrew Marvell's Upon Appleton House is a country-house poem praising Nunappleton House, the Yorkshire estate of the great Parliamentarian general, Thomas, Lord Fairfax. 1 Marvell, however, is never one to do anything simply; Upon Appleton House, ranging widely through the gardens and the history of Nunappleton House, is as much a conflict, on its own poetical terms, as the Civil War itself, the memory of which the poem so uneasily skirts. One locus of this pervasive agon is poetic representation, an arena in which the poem's argument with itself plays out most clearly through its use of feminine voices; as Christopher Kendrick points out, remarking on the sexual connotations of "upon" in the poem's title, "women sum this manor up." 2 Marvell deploys the women in the poem to show ruptures between history and poetry, and between the historical poet and the poetic speaker. There are two feminine voices that disrupt the masculine voice of the speaker, and two other women in the poem who, like these speakers' shadows, do not speak at all. The voices are the unnamed nun and the cook Thestylis; the silent bodies are the virgin Thwaites and the child Maria.

Charlotte Smith's Melancholia on the Page and Stage

Whether to praise or condemn Charlotte Smith's art, the late-eighteenth-century readers of her collection Elegiac Sonnets and Other Poems similarly describe her work as poetry of "touching melancholy," "pleasing melancholy," or even as "a mere flow of melancholy." 1 First published in 1784 and appearing in nine editions and a second volume over the next sixteen years, Elegiac Sonnets is a collection to which a melancholic mode gives aesthetic consistency. 2 While most critics of Elegiac Sonnets acknowledge that Smith's lyric speaker is insistently melancholic, recent studies by Adela Pinch, Judith Pascoe, and Sarah Zimmerman emphasize the theatricality of this poetic persona, leaving unexamined the significance of her sorrows. For these critics, Smith's theatricality emerges in her literary ventriloquism of other writers' voices, in her public dramatization of her private woes, and in her staged appeal to the sympathies of the reader. 3 Shifting this discussion of Smith in order to focus on her speaker's melancholia, I suggest here that the sorrow of Smith's poetic persona generates and is generated by the theatricality of the persona's poetic productions. The lyric speaker portrays herself as a poet who seeks to escape her sorrows through poetic creation, but only sporadically achieves a pleasurable literary melancholia. Even when she does so, the speaker emerges from her poetic visions to find her suffering unalleviated. Smith's speaker presents her poetic performances as illusory and fleeting and associates these qualities with the theatricality of sentimental spectatorship as practiced by male literary authorities. The speaker exposes the theatricality of the conventional poetic production [End Page 563] of sorrow in order to claim that her own sorrow, which exceeds the boundaries of traditional poetic representation, is actually the most powerful form of theater. In the speaker of Elegiac Sonnets, Smith creates a poetic persona who insists upon melancholia as the sign of her authentic literary production, which occurs in a representational dimension closer to "real" experience than is the realm of masculine poetic convention. By representing theatricality not as the illusory opposite of authentic experience but as the inescapable mode of experience, Smith carries her speaker's melancholia beyond poetic conventions of sensibility, and thereby claims a higher cultural standing for her own productions.

Czy Maurycy Mochnacki koncertował, grając na klawikordzie? Uwagi na marginesie wiersza Jana Lechonia

The article deals with the question whether the poetic representation of the concert in the verse “Mochnacki” by Jan Lechoń is probable. There is some doubt about one of the elements making the world pictured in the verse - the instrument the protagonist is playing. We know the account given by a person present at the concert performed by Mochnacki in the Societé Philharmonique in Metz on March 23rd 1832 and that lets us point rather to a piano then to a clavickord as the instrument used for the concert. Our opinion is supported by the sound characteristics and the design of the instrument given by the poet in the verse. The clavickord is not able to achieve such a variety of musical expression as Jan Lechoń says Mochnacki could yield. There is a strong probability that the instrument was a piano but the poet called it a clavickord (by mistake or on purpose) for style reasons.

What If I Woke up as the Other Sex? Batswana Youth Perspectives on Gender

The article focuses on 50 essays written by young people, aged 14-20, in Botswana, Africa, about how life would change if they were to wake up one day and find themselves a member of the other sex. The youth are peer counselors in a Young Women's Christian Association's program, 'Peer Approach to Counseling by Teens' (PACT), which is used in schools. Twenty-five of the essays were written by males and 25 by females. Conventional qualitative analyses are employed to (a) determine the extent to which the essays present positive, negative or mixed responses to life as the other sex; and (b) identify gender themes embedded in the essays. A departure from the conventional is provided through poetic representation. Two data poems were constructed from the essays. A poetic response to the data poems is also included.

The Prose and Cons of Poetic Representation in Evaluation Reporting

The evaluation of modern day social programming presents challenges to the evaluation community. Among these are the need for others to understand the complexity of unique social circumstances and the inclusion of a diverse range of evaluation participants. Such challenges may call for alternative methods of representation in evaluation reporting. In this article I make a case for and demonstrate the use of poetic transcription as one form of presenting evaluation findings. Taking language from focus group interviews, I constructed a poem intended to provoke report readers to engage in a process of reflective meaning making about the program being evaluated. I discuss my rationale for using poetic transcription as a form of evaluation reporting, the method by which I constructed the representation, and the reactions of the different stakeholders involved in the evaluation.

Islamic Modernity and the Desiring Self: Muhammad Iqbal and the Poetics of Narcissism

The Indian Muslim poet and religious thinker Muhammad Iqbal (c. 1876-1938) provides the most extensive and fully realised vision of an alternative, Islamic version of modernity that has yet appeared. His critique of Enlightenment rationality, and particularly his cogent linkage of it with Imperialism, anticipates an important line of post-War thinking. Above all, his apparent success in casting modern European civilisation as a dead-end offshoot of the authentic modernity engendered by Islam has earned him great admiration throughout the Muslim world, leaving aside the Indian subcontinent, where he has become an institution of Muslim culture. Iqbal's achievement goes beyond the mere dressing of a pre-existing conception of modernity in Islamic garb. In the manner of European Romantic and Modernist writers, he was able to generate a critique of Europe's rationalist and capitalist social order out of a distinctive figuration of the human condition. Like his European counterparts, from whom he learned a great deal, Iqbal founded his alternative version of modernity on the poetic representation of an ideal modern self characterised by its fundamentally aesthetic or creative mode of being rather than by any capacity for ratiocination. He derived this representation, however, not from the Romantic artist or hero of