Pluralistic Extension System Research Articles

Effects of extension service on the uptake of climate-smart sorghum production practices: Insights from drylands of Ethiopia

The promotion of climate-resilient practices (CRPs) requires the development of the capacity of farmers to adopt these practices owing to the knowledge-intensive nature of technologies. Extension services serve as a conduit for facilitating the conceptualization of CRPs and are instrumental in improving the resiliency and mitigation of climate change. We used a social-ecological framework and a multivariate probit model to analyze the drivers of the CRP uptake in moisture-stressed areas in Ethiopia, with a particular focus on extension services. Unlike previous studies that investigated a single technology, we considered a bundle of technologies. We focused on the use of two capital-intensive CRPs (drought-resistant seed and inorganic fertilizer) and four knowledge-intensive CRPs (minimum tillage, farmyard manure, water-saving technology, and crop residue retention). The role of extension services in promoting other CRPs beyond input and capital-intensive technologies was insignificant. Heterogeneity analysis revealed that the correlation between extension services and the adoption of other knowledge-intensive natural resource management practices holds irrespective of the proximity to the extension service providers. This finding highlights the need for targeted and tailored interventions that support farmers to address the challenges faced by them in moisture-stressed areas. Accordingly, we propose continuously improving the ability of the extension service providers to promote climate-change adaptation knowledge and practices. This should be accompanied by efforts to strengthen a pluralistic extension system, improve land tenure security, and decrease transaction costs for farmers through output market linkages.

A review on pluralistic extension systems through convergence

A review on pluralistic extension systems through convergence

The functionality of agricultural extension and advisory services from a system perspective: a subnational level analysis in India

ABSTRACT Purpose: This paper deals with the system level empirical analysis of Extension and Advisory Service (EAS) characteristics in India which help in identifying the functional nature of a pluralistic extension system. Design/Methodology/Approach: The study uses the ‘Best Fit’ framework for analysis of EAS of 36 organisations and applies criteria of functional advisory services proposed by Prager et al. Findings: Drawing knowledge from diverse sources; appropriate cooperation between them; a stable or growing workforce of field staff; staff receiving regular training and the use of a wide range of advisory methods by EAS providers were the positive aspects contributing to functional EAS. Advisory topics covered and clients group orientation was not uniform and inclusive. Time spent on advisories and other activities varied considerably among the different categories of organisations. Despite limitations, public EAS providers still play an important role in cementing all EAS providers in a pluralistic extension system and reaching out to the unreached. Practical implications: System level evaluation of EAS in a country highlights the functional and dysfunctional components of pluralistic EAS which can be strengthened or fixed for improving EAS support to farmers. Theoretical implications: The study depicts the application of the Best Fit Framework for system level evaluation of pluralistic EAS in a sub-national context. The conceptual framework for assessing the functionality of the EAS system is mainly drawn using the theories of New Institutional Economics and Operational Management. Originality/Value: The uniqueness of this study is that it evaluates EAS from a systems perspective and empirically identifies the functional and dysfunctional aspects while considering it as a part of the Agricultural Knowledge and Innovation System (AKIS).

Taking a snapshot of Extension and Advisory Systems performance and outcomes: insights on a semi-quantitative evaluation approach

ABSTRACT Purpose To evaluate pluralistic Extension and Advisory Services (EAS) systems performance and outcomes, and share the experiences made with applying a participatory semi-quantitative approach allowing for cross-country comparability. Design/methodology/approach The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) developed the ‘Extension and Advisory Services (EAS) System – Yardstick’ (EAS-Y), a semi-quantitative assessment approach relying on expert-based scores to evaluate the EAS system performance on the one hand, and users’ scores to measure the system outcomes on the other. The tool was applied in three countries, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Peru. Findings Results revealed an overall weak performance on most assessed criteria. Experts pointed out a lack of adequate policies addressing agricultural extension, insufficient funding, and poor infrastructure. On the other hand, the increased focus on sustainability, increased inclusiveness levels, and steady uptake of digitalization technologies are areas where progress was recently made. On the outcomes side, users perceived EAS contributed mainly to acquiring technical skills, while less to entrepreneurial and social skills. Practical Implications EAS-Y represented a user-friendly and cost-effective solution to identify performance gaps and assess outcomes in a semi-quantitative way. Therefore, we consider the latter has the potential to be applied to prioritize areas for intervention and guide decision-making processes. Theoretical implications The commonly existing data gap not allowing for a quantitative evaluation of pluralistic EAS systems can be overcome using a participatory evaluation tool that relies on expert and user’s judgments. Originality/Value We used an innovative evaluation approach to assess pluralistic extension systems in three Latin American countries.

Role Performance of Agricultural Input Dealers in Agro-advisory Services in West Bengal

Agricultural input dealers, among many agencies in pluralistic extension systems, have the highest reach to farmers based on their location advantage, rapport building, and ease of accessibility. The study was conducted in two districts of West Bengal viz. Purba Bardhaman and Hooghly in 2020 to measure the role performance of agricultural input dealers in agro-advisory services. Eighty agricultural input dealers from these two districts were selected using random sampling procedure. Data was collected using personal interview method. Independent variables included personal and socio-economic, psychological, and communication variables. Majority of the variables were found to have a significant positive contribution to the role performance. In addition, variables such as cosmopoliteness, extension participation, credit orientation, information sharing behaviour, and types of inputs sold were found to have a significant positive contribution and explained about fifty-seven percent variation of the dependent variable. Path analysis showed that types of inputs sold had highest direct effect. Also, through this highest indirect effect of maximum variables had channelized.

Awareness and adoption of conservation agriculture in Malawi: what difference can farmer-to-farmer extension make?

ABSTRACTDespite the potential of conservation agriculture (CA) for increased crop yields, energy savings, soil erosion control, and water-use efficiency, smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa have been slow to adopt. Farmer-to-farmer extension (F2FE) may have a role to play in overcoming the information access problems and lack of knowledge that may preclude widespread adoption. This study uses data for 180 lead farmers linked to their 455 followers to investigate how F2FE influences awareness and adoption of CA technologies in Malawi. Results from a bivariate probit model for follower farmer awareness and adoption of the three CA principles (minimum soil disturbance, crop residue retention, and crop diversification) reveal four main findings: First, lead farmer motivation increases their effectiveness at diffusing CA practices to their followers. Second, lead farmer familiarity with and adoption of CA both matter to the spread of CA practices, but familiarity appears more important. Third, lead farmers play a more critical role in increasing awareness than adoption of the CA practices. Finally, F2FE is a complement rather than a substitute for other sources of agricultural extension in Malawi's pluralistic extension system and should support but not replace current systems. Research and policy implications are discussed.

The Brazilian experience with agroecological extension: a critical analysis of reform in a pluralistic extension system

ABSTRACTPurpose: To analyze the Brazilian experience in designing and implementing a recent extension policy reform based on agroecology, and reflect on its wider theoretical implications for extension reform literature. Design/methodology/approach: Using a critical public analysis we characterize the evolution of Brazilian federal extension policy between 2004 and 2015, using political and legal documents as well as recent academic studies for policy frame characterization and implementation analysis. Findings: The case reveals the difficulty of implementing an agroecological extension approach as part of the endogenous development proposal expressed in 2004 PNATER. The agroecological proposal tended to be impaired by a more general demand for diverse public policy programs implementation, facing a series of institutional constraints. A policy reframing process led to a search for alternatives to make it compatible with a federal centralization trend and public administration rules, resulting in a contracting out emphasis. Theoretical implications: The study shows the political economy aspects of extension reform, and how original plans are influenced by path dependence and different and contrasting demands. Practical implications: The study points to the importance of considering political and institutional environments in extension reforms, and indicates a necessity for additional reflection about strategies for scaling up proposals for agroecological and sustainability oriented extension. Originality/value: Few studies are dedicated to understanding the political economy of extension reform, and reform of Brazilian rural extension systems.

Modern Extension Approaches for Livelihood Improvement for Resource Poor Farmers

Indian agriculture sector has an impressive long-term record of taking the country out of serious food shortages despite rapid population increase, given its heavy reliance on the work of its pluralistic extension system. But so far today gap between technology developed/released and the technology disseminated/adopted is wide. Technology Transfer (persuasive + paternalistic), Advisory work (persuasive + participatory), Human resource development (educational + paternalistic) and Facilitation for empowerment (educational + participatory) are the four paradigm of extension education. In light of the context and facts our strategy must be requires as targeting the area based all development agencies/ agents for similar message/ technologies, Strategies must be supplemented by input and ensuring utilization of locally available inputs or resources & efforts starts from low cost or no cost technologies for confidence building of clients.To help meet this challenge, the role of extension is clear - there is a great need for information, ideas, and organization. About 80 percent of the world's extension is publicly funded and delivered by civil servants, providing a diverse range of services to the general population, commercial producers, and disadvantaged target groups through a variety of approaches. The paper discusses some of the innovations, approaches and success stories, and policy changes needed to take the extension systems forward in light of the rapid changes in tone and tenor of technology transfer globally.

Reforming India's Pluralistic Extension System: Some Policy Issues

The agricultural sector in India has been successful in keeping pace with the rising food demand of a growing population. Rapid agricultural growth continues to be the key to poverty alleviation and overall economic development. The changing economic scenario in India and the need for appropriate agricultural technologies and agro-management practices to respond to food and nutritional security, poverty alleviation, diversifying market demands, export opportunities and environmental concerns is posing new challenges to technology dissemination systems. Public extension by itself can no longer respond to the multifarious demands of farming systems. There is need to reevaluate the capacity of agricultural extension to effectively address the contemporary and future needs of the farming community. Public funding for sustaining the vast extension infrastructure is also under considerable strain. Meanwhile in response to market demand, the existing public extension network is inexorably being complemented, supplemented and even replaced by private extension. As the nature and scope of agricultural extension undergoes fundamental changes, India looks for a whole new policy mix that nurtures the pluralistic extension system in India. The current study tries to analyse in-depth the various issues of pluralistic extension system in India and the policy reforms carried out to address them.

Market Oriented Advisory Services Through Women Advisory Service Providers in Punjab, India: The Case of Value Addition Through Food Processing

Inclusion of women in scientific and technological endeavors and realizing women’s intellectual potential is a big challenge as they play a decisive role in many facets of agricultural sector in India. Self-help groups (SHGs) have emerged as an effective mechanism for empowerment through group action. Capacity building through training programmes has a positive impact for motivating the rural women to adopt the food preservation technologies which improved the knowledge level significantly. In pluralistic extension system in India public extension plays an important role. Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering & Technology (CIPHET-a unit of Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi), made efforts to support the public extension system through commercialization of processing technologies through social capital, capacity building and transfer of processing technologies among peer members and other rural women. The present case study documents the methods adopted by the Women Advisory Services Providers in providing advisory services to Women Self Help Groups in Punjab state of India in food processing sector and thereby making them socially and economically empowered.

POSSIBILITIES FOR IMPROVING THE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE OF REPUBLIC OF SERBIA

Agricultural extension service is one of the key factors of the agricultural and rural development. In this paper the author presents the main problems facing rural areas and agriculture of Serbia, as well as possibilities to improve AES, which would result in the reduction and resolution of these problems. Emphasis is placed on the extent of decentralization and implementation of bottom-up approach, funding, the creation of a pluralistic extension system, the need of additional education of staff, legislative and legal framework, as well as creation of a functional AKIS. Successful implementation of these measures and activities requires a great effort of agricultural experts, as well as the political will of the government.

Shaping Collective Functions in Privatized Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems: The Positioning and Embedding of a Network Broker in the Dutch Dairy Sector

This paper examines new organizational arrangements that have emerged in the context of a privatized extension system. It investigates the positioning and embedding of a network broker aimed at enhancing interaction in the privatized agricultural knowledge and information system (AKIS), to assess whether tensions reported in other sectors also manifest in agriculture and inform theory and policy on collective functions in pluralistic extension systems. It employs a case study approach using semi-structured interviews, observations, a closed questionnaire and secondary data analysis. Results show that a demand-driven way of working may prevent network brokers losing their neutrality in farmers’ eyes, but that a network broker nevertheless can be perceived as disruptive by extension service providers. Furthermore, it appears hard to make the network brokerage function self-sufficient. The paper shows that a social dilemma manifests, that is, the collective benefits are recognized, but private interests do not support the brokers’ continued existence. This prompts consideration of the need for continued public support. Public support for network broker appears to be needed, but possible (market-disturbing) interference with the activities of private extension service providers prompts critical examination of the mandates of publicly funded network brokers.

Pathways and Tensions in the Family of Reform

This paper distinguishes two pathways in the various proposals for innovative reforms of public sector agricultural extension. The two ‘pathways’ involve the participatory trends toward democratization and farmer association and, in contrast, the push toward capitalistic commercial attitudes toward agriculture as business. The introduction reviews a range of issues surrounding current extension reforms. The body of the paper highlights the pathway tensions that exist between several extension reform measures. The first is between demand-led privatization measures and participatory extension. Privatization is then examined alongside the call for institutional pluralistic extension systems. Finally, the contemporary pressure to expand extension program purposes to include issues such as health, family planning and environmental protection is reviewed.

The Continuing Role of Government in Pluralistic Extension Systems

This paper underscores the position that “strong, effective, and efficient governments are essential to development, for they alone can create the enabling environment required for the private sector and civil society to flourish.” Ismail Serageldin (1996). The scope of public sector roles and responsibilities in extension is reviewed along with an indepth discussion of ten key interdependencies of government and pluralistic extension systems. Although some countries are reconsidering their public role regarding extension, the developing world is still pressured to limit state involvement except as an enabler of the private sector and as a funding agent for private-sector provision of extension services. However, institutional reform through privatizing schemes such as contracting with the private sector and the establishment of partnerships in the provision of extension services is not always an easy process. The paper posits that within the coming decade, policy makers worldwide will find themselves challenged to confront again the role of national government vis-a-vis extension’s institutional pluralism and the challenges of critical development issues.

Agricultural development; Opportunities and threats for farmers and implications for extension organisations

In many countries agriculture is in a process of rapid change, - it has to meet a growing demand for food in a sustainable way, - the international competition is increasing, - the increase in labour productivity is decreasing the employment opportunities in agriculture, - agricultural research is offering many new opportunities to increase productivity, - government price support for agricultural products in industrial countries is decreasing. These changes have many implications for agricultural extension, such as: - the knowledge and capabilities of farmers has become a major factor in their ability to compete in national and international markets, - advice is not only needed on the adoption of new technologies, but also on many other decisions farmers have to make, such as the choice of their farming system and the decision whether or not to earn an income from outside agriculture, - this requires a change in extension methods and in the information sources extension agents use, - agricultural development demands painful changes in the way of farming and of living for many farm families. It is a challenge for extension agencies to help farm families to realise this, - a major task for leaders of extension organisations is to manage a process of change in agricultural extension. Often the role extension has to play in agricultural development can not be performed by one extension organisation, but only by a pluralistic extension system. Agricultural extension is often expected to contribute to a reduction of poverty among farmers and farm labourers. One has to think seriously how one can realise this objective.

Public and Private Agricultural Extension: Partners or Rivals?

This article examines the roles of the public and private sectors in agricultural extension. Extension services are classified according to their economic characteristics to identify areas where opportunities for private (for-profit and nonprofit) participation will arise. The author finds that commercialization of farm operations gives rise to demand for specialized client- and location-specific extension services that can be provided by private for-profit firms, although the main buyers will likely be market-oriented medium and large farmers. Because of market failures, some types of extension services will require public funding, although not necessarily public delivery. A critical government role in a pluralistic extension system would be to provide the appropriate regulatory framework to ensure fair competition and maintain quality standards.