Buoyant Plume Research Articles

Diagnosing tracer transport in convective penetration of a stably stratified layer

We use large-eddy simulations to study the penetration of a buoyant plume carrying a passive tracer into a stably stratified layer with constant buoyancy frequency. Using a buoyancy-tracer volume distribution, we develop a method for objectively partitioning plume fluid in buoyancy-tracer space into three regions, each of which corresponds to a coherent region in physical space. Specifically, we identify a source region where undiluted plume fluid enters the stratified layer, a transport region where much of the transition from undiluted to mixed fluid occurs in the plume cap and an accumulation region corresponding to a radially spreading intrusion. This method enables quantification of different measures of turbulence and mixing within each of the three regions, including potential energy and turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rates, an activity parameter and the instantaneous mixing efficiency. We find that the most intense buoyancy gradients lie in a thin layer at the cap of the penetrating plume. This provides the primary stage of mixing between plume and environment and exhibits a mixing efficiency around 50 %. Newly generated mixtures of environmental and plume fluid join the intrusion and experience relatively weak turbulence and buoyancy gradients. As the intrusion spreads radially, environmental fluid surrounding the intrusion is mixed into the intrusion with moderate mixing efficiency. This dominates the volume of environmental fluid entrained into the region containing plume fluid. However, the ‘strongest’ entrainment, as measured by the specific entrainment rate, is largest in the plume cap, where the most buoyant environmental fluid is entrained.

Spreading ridge migration enabled by plume-ridge de-anchoring

It has long been recognised that spreading ridges are kept in place by competing subduction forces that drive plate motions. Asymmetric strain rates pull spreading ridges in the direction of the strongest slab pull force, which partially explains why spreading ridges can migrate vast distances. However, the interaction between mantle plumes and spreading ridges plays a relatively unknown role on the evolution of plate boundaries. Using a numerical model of mantle convection, we show that plumes with high buoyancy flux (>3000 kg/s) can capture spreading ridges within a 1000 km radius and anchor them in place. Exceptionally high buoyancy fluxes may fragment the overriding plate into smaller plates to accommodate more efficient plate motion. If the plume buoyancy flux wanes below 1000 kg/s the ridge may be de-anchored, leading to rapid ridge migration rates when combined with asymmetric plate boundary forces. Our results show that plume-ridge de-anchoring may have contributed to the rapid migration of the SE Indian Ridge from 43 million years ago (Ma) due to waning buoyancy flux from the Kerguelen plume, supported by magma flux estimates and radiogenic isotope geochemistry of eruption products. The plume-ridge de-anchoring mechanism we have identified has global implications for the evolution of plate boundaries near mantle plumes.

Dispersion of inertial particles in turbulent canopy flows with buoyant and nonbuoyant plumes

Dispersion of inertial particles in turbulent canopy flows with buoyant and nonbuoyant plumes

Smoke Emissions and Buoyant Plumes above Prescribed Burns in the Pinelands National Reserve, New Jersey

Prescribed burning is a cost-effective method for reducing hazardous fuels in pine- and oak-dominated forests, but smoke emissions contribute to atmospheric pollutant loads, and the potential exists for exceeding federal air quality standards designed to protect human health. Fire behavior during prescribed burns influences above-canopy sensible heat flux and turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) in buoyant plumes, affecting the lofting and dispersion of smoke. A more comprehensive understanding of how enhanced energy fluxes and turbulence are related during the passage of flame fronts could improve efforts to mitigate the impacts of smoke emissions. Pre- and post-fire fuel loading measurements taken during 48 operational prescribed burns were used to estimate the combustion completeness factors (CC) and emissions of fine particulates (PM2.5), carbon dioxide (CO2), and carbon monoxide (CO) in pine- and oak-dominated stands in the Pinelands National Reserve of southern New Jersey. During 11 of the prescribed burns, sensible heat flux and turbulence statistics were measured by tower networks above the forest canopy. Fire behavior when fire fronts passed the towers ranged from low-intensity backing fires to high-intensity head fires with some crown torching. Consumption of forest-floor and understory vegetation was a near-linear function of pre-burn loading, and combustion of fine litter on the forest floor was the predominant source of emissions, even during head fires with some crowning activity. Tower measurements indicated that above-canopy sensible heat flux and TKE calculated at 1 min intervals during the passage of fire fronts were strongly influenced by fire behavior. Low-intensity backing fires, regardless of forest type, had weaker enhancement of above-canopy air temperature, vertical and horizontal wind velocities, sensible heat fluxes, and TKE compared to higher-intensity head and flanking fires. Sensible heat flux and TKE in buoyant plumes were unrelated during low-intensity burns but more tightly coupled during higher-intensity burns. The weak coupling during low-intensity backing fires resulted in reduced rates of smoke transport and dispersion, and likely in more prolonged periods of elevated surface concentrations. This research facilitates more accurate estimates of PM2.5, CO, and CO2 emissions from prescribed burns in the Pinelands, and it provides a better understanding of the relationships among fire behavior, sensible heat fluxes and turbulence, and smoke dispersion in pine- and oak-dominated forests.

Machine Learning-Driven Quantification of CO2 Plume Dynamics at Illinois Basin Decatur Project Sites Using Microseismic Data

This study utilizes machine learning to quantify CO2 plume extents by analyzing microseismic data from the Illinois Basin Decatur Project (IBDP). Leveraging a unique dataset of well logs, microseismic records, and CO2 injection metrics, this work aims to predict the temporal evolution of subsurface CO2 saturation plumes. The findings illustrate that machine learning can predict plume dynamics, revealing vertical clustering of microseismic events over distinct time periods within certain proximities to the injection well, consistent with an invasion percolation model. The buoyant CO2 plume partially trapped within sandstone intervals periodically breaches localized barriers or baffles, which act as leaky seals and impede vertical migration until buoyancy overcomes gravity and capillary forces, leading to breakthroughs along vertical zones of weakness. Between different unsupervised clustering techniques, K-Means and DBSCAN were applied and analyzed in detail, where K-means outperformed DBSCAN in this specific study by indicating the combination of the highest Silhouette Score and the lowest Davies–Bouldin Index. The predictive capability of machine learning models in quantifying CO2 saturation plume extension is significant for real-time monitoring and management of CO2 sequestration sites. The models exhibit high accuracy, validated against physical models and injection data from the IBDP, reinforcing the viability of CO2 geological sequestration as a climate change mitigation strategy and enhancing advanced tools for safe management of these operations.

Interacting Influences of Diurnal Tides, Winds, and River Discharge on a Large Coastal Plume

AbstractThe dispersal of large river plumes in the coastal ocean depends on multiple factors, and in some cases, can be categorized into distinct dynamical regimes: a tidally dominated near‐field, a rotational mid‐field, and a coastal current far‐field. In this study, observations and modeling are used to evaluate the factors controlling the variability in the buoyant plume from Mobile Bay. Rather than distinct dynamical regimes, the Mobile Bay plume depends on forcings that act at overlapping temporal and spatial scales: diurnal tides, river discharge events, and winds. Satellite synthetic aperture radar images along with shipboard in‐situ sampling and marine radar are used to observe plume fronts in spring 2021. Hydrodynamic model simulations are compared with observations and used to characterize a large coastal plume at consistent tidal phase across a range of forcing conditions. The along‐shore position of the plume depends primarily on advection by wind‐driven surface currents. The cross‐shore extent and plume area depend primarily on the tidal amplitude and river discharge, and secondarily on northerly (seaward) winds. Along‐shore winds influence the buoyancy anomaly by altering salinity in the estuary and offshore. Upwelling winds increase the buoyancy anomaly and advect previous plumes away from the mouth. Downwelling winds reduce the buoyancy anomaly by trapping previous plumes near the coast and directing freshwater discharge toward a secondary outlet. Thus, the combined, overlapping influences of the tide, wind, and discharge dominate the variability in freshwater delivery to the shelf at time scales of days and distances of tens of km.

Seasonal, Interannual and Long‐Term Variability of Sea Surface Temperature in the NW Iberian Upwelling, 1982–2020

AbstractHere the seasonal, inter‐annual and long‐term variability of satellite‐derived sea surface temperature (SST) was analyzed in the NW Iberian margin from 1982 to 2020 to explore spatial differences at high (5‐km) resolution. In‐situ temperature measurements from five coastal buoys were used to validate the satellite‐derived SST data, discarding pixels from areas close to the shoreline. Regional SST increased significantly from 0.07 to 0.25°C per decade, with the lowest rates in shelf waters directly affected by seasonal coastal upwelling. Upwelling filaments also contributed to dampen the temperature increase in the adjacent slope and ocean waters. The spatial variability observed in the amplitude and timing of the seasonal cycle of SST is directly related to hydrography and circulation patterns of the region such as upwelling events during summer and the development of the river's buoyant plume and the warm Iberian Poleward Current during winter.

Characterizing visual structures in a buoyant plume

Characterizing visual structures in a buoyant plume

Sedimentary dynamics and depositional model for mud accumulation in deep lake basins: A case study in the Upper Triassic Chang-7 Member, Ordos Basin, northern China

Shales in deep lake basins have become the main focus of continental shale oil and gas exploration. In order to highlight the sedimentary dynamics of mud deposition in deep lake basins, a combination of core observation, thin section examination, X-ray diffraction, and QEMSCAN (quantitative evaluation of minerals by scanning electron microscopy) was used to analyze the depositional characteristics of mudrocks in the Chang-7 Member from the Yanchang Formation (Upper Triassic) in Ordos Basin, and to establish a depositional model for mud accumulation in deep lake basins. This study recognizes four mudrock lithofacies in the Chang-7 Member: (1) the laminated silt-bearing mudstone, which generally develops a binary composition of “silt–clay” or a ternary composition of “silt–clay–organic matter”; (2) the graded mudstone, mainly composed of dark gray and gray-black mudstone sandwiched by silt-bearing mudstone; (3) the massive mudstone, internally showing a uniform distribution of quartz, clay, and carbonate minerals, with also a small amount of organic detritus; and (4) the laminated shale, which is generally composed of clay laminae, and organic laminae of the former two. Sediment supply, topographic slope, and flood intensity combine to control the evolution of gravity flows and the transport and deposition of the mudrock in the Chang-7 Member. The influence of orogeny provides terrain gradient, water depth, abundant sediments at source areas, and triggering mechanism for the formation of gravity flows. Floods triggered by wetting events provide the impetus for sediment transport. Mud deposition in the Chang-7 Member was mainly related to the transport and sedimentation of mud by hyperpycnal flows and rapid sedimentation by buoyant plume flocculation. A comprehensive evolutionary model for shale accumulation in the deep lake basin is established by integrating various triggering mechanisms and mud transport sedimentary processes.

The helium and carbon isotopic signature of Ocean island basalts: Insights from Fogo volcano (Cape Verde archipelago)

Fluid inclusions (FI) entrapped in phenocrysts carried by Ocean Island Basalts (OIB) contain key information on volatiles’ abundance and origin in their mantle sources. Here, we add new piece of knowledge to our understanding of volatile geochemistry in global OIB magmas, by presenting new noble gas (He-Ne-Ar) and carbon (C) isotope results for olivine- and clinopyroxene-hosted FI from enclaves, lavas, tephra and volcanic gas samples from Fogo, the only frequently active volcano at the Cape Verde archipelago (eastern Atlantic Ocean). FI, together with crater fumaroles, constrain the Fogo 3He/4He signature at 7.14–8.44 Rc/Ra (where RC is the air-corrected 3He/4He isotope ratio, and Ra is the same ratio in air), which is within the typical MORB (Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt) mantle. The carbon isotopic ratio (δ13C vs. Pee Dee Belemnite) of CO2 in FI and fumaroles range from -6.04 to -4.41 ‰. We identify systematic variations of δ13C and He/Ar* with FI entrapment pressure (estimated from a combination of host mineral barometry and FI microthermometry), from which we develop a model for volatile degassing in the mantle-to-crustal magma storage system. The model predicts a crustal-like signature for carbon (δ13C of -0.4 ± 1.0 ‰) in primary melts formed by mantle melting at ∼2200 MPa (∼77 km) and a source He/Ar* ratio of 0.90–0.24, which are indicative of variably depleted mantle metasomatized by carbon enriched melts/fluids from a crustal component. We also use our results to characterise regional (in the Cape Verde and Canary archipelagos) and global trends in C and He isotope composition from OIB. From a comparison with the few other OIB localities for which δ13C are available, we propose that a carbon enriched crustal component could be recurrent at a global scale in OIB magmatism, although often masked by isotope fractionation during magmatic degassing. We additionally find that, at regional scale, He isotopes in OIB scale inversely correlate with the degree of partial melting of the mantle beneath individual islands’ (inferred from the La/Yb ratio of erupted basalts). More widely, our results corroborate previously established global relationships between OIB He isotopic signature, plume buoyancy flux and overlying plate velocity. In this interpretation, the MORB-like 3He/4He (8 ± 1 Ra) at Fogo reflects a combination of (i) low to medium magma productivity, (ii) relatively low plume buoyancy flux (∼1.1 Mg/s), and (iii) slow average velocity (∼3 cm/yr) of the overlying plate.

Evaluating crown scorch predictions from a computational fluid dynamics wildland fire simulator

BackgroundCrown scorch—the heating of live leaves, needles, and buds in the vegetative canopy to lethal temperatures without widespread combustion—is one of the most common fire effects shaping post-fire canopies. Despite the ability of computational fluid dynamic models to finely resolve fire activity and buoyant plume dynamics including heterogenous 3D distributions of forest canopy heating, these models have had only limited use in simulating fire effects and have not been used to evaluate crown scorch. Here, we demonstrate a method of evaluating crown scorch using a computational fluid dynamics model, FIRETEC, and validate this approach by simulating the experiments that were used to develop Van Wagner’s 1973 crown scorch model.ResultsThe average scorch height prediction from FIRETEC compares well with the empirical model derived by Van Wagner, which is the most widely used empirical model for crown scorch. We further find that the 3D buoyant plume dynamics from a steady and homogeneous idealized heat source on the ground results in a spatially heterogenous crown scorch pattern reflecting complex heating dynamics that are best represented by percent scorch rather than height of scorch.ConclusionsThe ability of the computational fluid dynamics model to capture variation in crown scorch due to 3D buoyant plume dynamics provides direct links between forest structure, fire behavior, and fire effects that can be used by forest managers and researchers to better understand how fires result in crown damage under various environmental and management scenarios.

Impact of river-discharged freshwater on surface ocean environments revealed by synergistic use of satellite measurements in the East China Sea

River discharge forms a plume of low-salinity water that spreads offshore, delivering terrestrial substances into the ocean and thus plays a critical role in controlling marine environments as well as the carbon cycle. This study investigated how freshwater discharged from the Changjiang impacts the physical and biological responses and oceanic uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the northern East China Sea (ECS) by combining the recently available sea surface salinity (SSS) product from the Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) mission with other satellite measurements of sea surface temperature (SST) and chlorophyll-a (chl-a) concentration. The partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) and its interannual variability were estimated using empirical regression with satellite-derived environmental variables. The bias-corrected SMAP SSS revealed that river discharge largely contributed to the distinct interannual SSS variations, with a seasonal cycle reaching a maximum in winter and a minimum in summer. Compared to the SST and chl-a anomalies, we observed an increase in SST and primary production in the region where sea surface freshening was robust. Freshwater from rivers contributes to sea surface warming by trapping heat from the atmosphere at the surface layer. Nutrient-enriched freshwater within the buoyant plume enhances phytoplankton production, which in turn enriches the ocean surface with chl-a. Simultaneously, the pCO2 was relatively low in the region where the SST and primary production were high, highlighting that the heat and riverine nutrients trapped within the buoyant plume contributed to the reduction in pCO2 by promoting the biological uptake of CO2. The estimates conducted here illustrate the synergistic utility of multiple satellite measurements for the evaluation of CO2 uptake capacity, complemented by in situ measurements of river-dominated marginal seas.

Hourly to weekly variations in halite precipitation from the hypersaline Dead Sea: The role of evaporation, water cooling and freshwater plume stability

ABSTRACTThick‐bedded halite sequences in the geological record are characterized by lateral variations, reflecting spatiotemporal variations in environmental forcing. Although temporal variations have been examined over seasonal scales or longer durations, there is a paucity of information regarding the dynamics of halite deposition at shorter durations of days and hours. Additionally, the influence of water discharges and surface salinity gradients remains poorly understood. Here, for the first time, in situ, hourly to weekly halite accumulation rates were measured on the Dead Sea floor (ca 20 m water depth), the only modern deep and hypersaline water body. Novel underwater photography methods were developed to directly observe halite precipitation at the lake floor, coeval with monitoring of the environmental drives, i.e. evaporation, meteorological and limnological conditions. Two fundamental environments were explored: a diluted plume environment arising from spring discharge; and a mixed hypersaline environment. The focus was on deposition during winter when the halite accumulation rate is highest, and the relationship between evaporation and halite accumulation is most straightforward since the water column is vertically uniform. Significant spatial variations in halite accumulation were found between the two environments, along with hourly variations in each environment. In the mixed hypersaline environment, over intra‐diurnal timescales, evaporation plays a more significant role in halite precipitation, whereas temperature has a greater impact on seasonal changes. In the diluted plume environment, the stability of the buoyant plume controls the rate of halite deposition; during windstorms, the plume is stirred, with higher surface water salinity and higher rate of halite accumulation. However, under calm winds, the plume is stable, with diluted surface water, and the rate of halite accumulation is a few times lower. Following these new findings, the implications for the interpretation of halite deposits are discussed.

Wind‐Enhanced Separation of Large‐Scale River Plumes From Coastal Corners

AbstractIdealized models are analyzed to quantify how large‐scale river plumes interact with coastal corners with and without wind‐driven currents. The configuration has a corner formed by two perpendicular shelves (with constant slope) that are joined with a coastal radius of curvature (rc). The buoyant plume originates from an upstream point source. The rc and wind forcing are varied among runs. Steep‐ and gentle‐slope runs are compared for some situations. Without winds, plumes separate from corners with rc smaller than two inertial radii (ri); this threshold is twice the rc < ri theoretical separation criterion. After separation, no‐wind plumes form an anticyclonic bulge, and reattach farther downstream. Offshore excursion increases as rc decreases. A downwelling‐favorable wind component along the upstream coast (τsx) favors separation by increasing total plume speed. An upwelling‐favorable wind component along the downstream coast (τsy) also increases offshore excursion. Winds blowing obliquely offshore with both these wind components advect the plume farther offshore. Wind‐driven currents that steer plumes in this situation include a downshelf jet originating on the upstream shelf and continuing around the coastal corner and beyond, offshore and upshelf surface transport downstream of the corner, and surface Ekman transport on the outer shelf. Multiple linear regressions quantify plume position sensitivity to rc, τsx, and τsy; results are discussed in a dynamical context. Globally, many river plumes interact with coastal corners under various wind conditions.

Forcing conditions of cross-shelf plumes on a wide continental shelf, Winyah Bay, South Atlantic Bight

Buoyant cross-shelf river plumes can extend far offshore through the combined effect of buoyancy and wind forcing, creating a critical land-ocean link in global biogeochemical cycles. On the Carolinas continental shelf, cross-shelf plume structure has been analyzed using satellite imagery, with forcing conditions represented by an estuarine Richardson number, wind stress, and alongshore pressure gradient. Three distinct cross-shelf plume patterns emerged, each occurring under an upwelling-favorable wind: (1) The separated plume, when a single filament of buoyant water spreads offshore (a prototypical cross-shelf plume structure); (2) The upwind-curving plume, which turns against the wind at some offshore distance and is created by stronger buoyancy forcing; and (3) The multi-lobe plume, which is partially trapped by the coast with multiple streaks protruding offshore and is created by stronger wind forcing, and further aided by a coincident alongshore pressure gradient force. The latter two regimes represent a low-wind, high discharge limit and a strong-wind limit of cross-shelf plumes. High-resolution satellite images reveal rich submesoscale variability associated with each plume type. Results suggest plume transport extends farthest offshore in low-energy separated plumes through a balance of weak buoyancy and weak wind forcing.

Simulation of natural convection flow for vertical heated rod by using ANSYS/Fluent

The decay heat removal by natural convection is very important in case of Station blackout (SBO) of nuclear reactor. The computational fluid dynamic (CFD) is helpful to simulate the flow and temperature field. However, the CFD simulation models need to be validated by the experimental data. Thus, in this report, the Anslys/Fluent is applied to simulate the natural convection induced by single heater rod. The vertical heated rod with a diameter of 12 mm and a length of 225 mm is immersed at the center of a vertical pipe made of acrylic with a diameter of 146 mm and a height of 500 mm. In this simulation, the coupled scheme algorithm is also applied. Regarding to experimental method, the optical method such as Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) was applied for 2-dimensional velocity distribution and pointwise temperature measurement. As a result, the predicted flow and temperature field are well agreed with experimental data. Accordingly, the thermal plumes are well estimated by ANSYS/Fluent, in which the buoyant plumes induced by different temperatures vertically go up along the heater rod's upper part until the container's isolated upper wall. The complicated flow occurs in the middle part of the container by mixing the downward flow on the top and the upward flow from the heater rod.

A Case Study Featuring the Time Evolution of a Fire‐Induced Plume Jet Over the Rum Creek Fire: Mechanisms, Processes, and Dynamical Interplay

AbstractResults are presented from the Rum Creek fire during the California Fire Dynamics Experiment (CalFiDE). An instrumented payload aboard the NOAA Twin Otter (TO) aircraft, which included a scanning micro‐pulsed Doppler lidar (DL) and in situ chemistry packages, was used to address the evolution of a buoyant plume jet (BPJ) and transport dynamics over the southwest corner of the fire between 09/01/2022 and 09/02/2022. An approach previously developed to isolate updrafts was modified to account for the Gaussian core structure when addressing the evolution of the updraft, plume‐top entrainment, lateral entrainment, and the role of fire‐atmosphere interactions on the characteristics of the BPJ during four overpasses. A persistent cross‐valley flow leading up to the BPJ was observed for all four overpasses, with flow enhancement during the second overpass that coincided with changes in the BPJ structure and turbulence characteristics surrounding the BPJ. Length scales and entrainment rates were estimated at the lateral edges and the top of the plume. In the case of the latter, an analytical form of the BPJ profile above the vertical velocity maximum of the updraft was derived using a simplified form of the vertical momentum equation following a partial budget analysis that accounted for plume‐top entrainment and the boundary layer (BL) inversion. Velocity core strength and characteristics were analyzed away from the updraft with similar relationships between depth‐to‐widths of velocity cores found in a forthcoming study focused on wildfire plumes.

Video-based measurements of the entrainment, speed and mass flux in a wind-blown eruption column

On May 4 2010 a wind-blown ash plume issued from Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland. Analysis of a 17-minute-long video recording of the eruption suggests that, within 2–2.5 km of the vent, the flow was moving with the wind and rising under buoyancy, following a trajectory directly analogous with laboratory experiments of turbulent buoyant plumes in a cross-flow. The radius of the time-averaged ash cloud grew with height z at a rate r = 0.48 z, corresponding to an entrainment coefficient 0.4, again consistent with laboratory experiments. By analysing the frames in the video and comparing the shape of the plume to that predicted by the model, we estimate that during the 17 minutes recorded, the eruption rate gradually decreased by about 43% from an initial rate of 1.11 × 104 kg s−1 to 0.63 × 104 kg s−1. The analysis reported herein opens the way to assess eruption rates and eruption column processes from video recordings during explosive volcanic eruptions.

Investigating Earth surface deformation with SAR interferometry and geomodeling in the transborder Meuse–Rhine region

Introduction: This study aims to differentiate local and regional ground uplift, as well as sub-regional subsidence induced by groundwater level drawdown, which are possibly enhanced across fault structures, as monitored by various synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) processing methods. A buoyant mantle plume under the Eifel may be responsible for the regional ground uplift, including the Weser–Geul (BE) and South Limburg regions (NL), which could negatively affect the area proposed for the future Einstein Telescope.Methods: Different InSAR processing techniques are compared to evaluate their limits in tracking fault structures on a time series of Copernicus Sentinel-1 images while detecting and measuring ground motion based on their phase signature. The results present an overall stable ground for the Euregio Meuse–Rhine region, especially at the Belgian–Dutch border, while tectonic activity is observed along the German side of the Rhine Graben.Results: As the current neotectonic activity in the target area was not well known, we performed a spatiotemporal analysis of ground deformation associated with the presence of NW–SE-trending normal faults where karst also develops, as well as along the Variscan NE–SW-trending thrust faults. This work demonstrates that the identification of deformation hazards using satellite remote sensing (and connected seismological) techniques is challenging mainly due to (very) small regional scale deformation, terrain conditions, and SAR properties.Discussion: Thus, the results mostly indicate ground stability over the area; however, also some agricultural activities were observed, as was deformation along some infrastructure such as railways. Displacements of millimetric order measured along the faults located near the Geul valley (BE) are probably related to old mining activities.

Turbulent Dynamics of Buoyant Melt Plumes Adjacent Near‐Vertical Glacier Ice

AbstractAt marine‐terminating glaciers, both buoyant plumes and local currents energize turbulent exchanges that control ice melt. Because of challenges in making centimeter‐scale measurements at glaciers, these dynamics at near‐vertical ice‐ocean boundaries are poorly constrained. Here we present the first observations from instruments robotically bolted to an underwater ice face, and use these to elucidate the interplay between buoyancy and externally forced currents in meltwater plumes. Our observations captured two limiting cases of the flow. When external currents are weak, meltwater buoyancy energizes the turbulence and dominates the near‐boundary stress. When external currents strengthen, the plume diffuses far from the boundary and the associated turbulence decreases. As a result, even relatively weak buoyant melt plumes are as effective as moderate shear flows in delivering heat to the ice. These are the first in‐situ observations to demonstrate how buoyant melt plumes energize near‐boundary turbulence, and why their dynamics are critical in predicting ice melt.