Plumbago Species Research Articles

Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Cytotoxic Potential of PlumbaginLoaded pH-Responsive Vaginal Nanoformulations.

Plumbagin is a naphthoquinone from the roots of the Plumbago species and exhibits anticancer activity. Translational usage of plumbagin in biomedical sciences is restricted due to its poor solubility and bioavailability. Therefore, pH-responsive plumbagin-loaded vaginal nanoformulations with polylactic acid (PLA)-chitosan polymeric coat were fabricated by inotropic gelation technique. Among the four (F1, F2, F3, F4) nanoformulations prepared, F3 exhibited good interaction of polymers with plumbagin as evidenced by FTIR, XRD, and thermal analysis. The positive zeta potential (48.4 ± 5.57mV), optimal size (694 ± 65.76nm), low PDI (0.157), and good encapsulation efficiency (77.8 ± 3.62%) of F3 were significant. The indirect method of drug loading (58.35 ± 5.00%) confirmed the drug content of about 495.44 ± 5.00µg of plumbagin in 1mg of F3. The drug loading pattern was confirmed by TEM analysis, and the spherical morphology of the nanocomposite was confirmed by SEM analysis. F3 formulation showed 46% and 25.2% of drug release in 24h in simulated vaginal fluid at pH 4.5 and 7 respectively with sustained release and hydrolyses of lactic acid from PLA. Among all the nanoformulations evaluated, nanoformulation F3 with promising physicochemical properties showed good antifungal and antibacterial activity against various fungal and bacterial strains. F3 exhibited potent cytotoxicity with an IC50 of 3.6 ± 0.12µg/ml for HeLa and an IC50 of 0.81 ± 0.01µg/ml for SiHa cells. Altogether, the nanoformulation F3 exhibited potent antimicrobial activity against vaginal infections and cytotoxicity against cervical cancer cell lines.

Enzymes inhibitory capabilities of phenolics from Plumbago indica L. and Plumbago auriculata Lam.: In-vitro studies and molecular docking

The hydroalcoholic roots’ extracts of Plumbago indica L. and P. auriculata Lam. were studied for phenolic profiles using the HPLC technique and enzyme inhibitory activities using in-vitro and in-silico models. HPLC analyses of both extracts revealed the presence of fifteen and thirteen phenolic compounds for P. indica and P. auriculata, respectively. P. indica root extract contained Catechin (5321.63 µg/g) and Gallic acid (4616.29 µg/g) while P. auriculata root extract showed rutin (1505.46 µg/g) and ellagic acid (1390.72 µg/g) as the major compounds. The enzyme inhibitory assays showed that both Plumbago species have enzyme inhibition activities against all tested enzymes; acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, α-amylase, α-glucosidase, tyrosinase, and xanthine oxidase. The superior activity was accounted for by P. indica. with I.C.50 values of 138.63, 25.69, 169.31, 90.31, 197.66, and 55.68 µg/ml while the inhibitory potential of P. auriculata was the lowest with I.C.50 equal to 152.75, 36.32, 179.71, 103.71, 217.23, and 74.88 µg/ml, respectively for acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, α-amylase, α-glucosidase, tyrosinase, and xanthine oxidase. The docking studies showed promising results for certain compounds. These findings imply that these extracts have the potential to act as enzyme inhibitors for the treatment of disorders associated with them.

Approaches for in vitro propagation and production of plumbagin in Plumbago spp.

The genus Plumbago (family Plumbaginaceae), commonly known as leadwort, is a sub-tropical shrub that produces secondary metabolite plumbagin, which is employed by pharmaceutical companies and in clinical research. Plumbagin is a potent pharmaceutical because of its anti-microbial, anti-malarial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-fertility, anti-plasmodium, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and other effects. This review documents the biotechnological innovations used to produce plumbagin. The use of modern biotechnological techniques can lead to a variety of benefits, including better yield, increased extraction efficiency, mass production of plantlets, genetic stability, increased biomass, and more. Large-scale in vitro propagation is necessary to minimize over-exploitation of the natural population and allow the use of various biotechnological techniques to improve the plant species and secondary metabolite production. During in vitro culture, optimum conditions are requisites for explant inoculation and plant regeneration. In this review, we provide information on various aspects of plumbagin, depicting its structure, biosynthesis, and biotechnological aspects (both conventional and advanced) along with the future prospects. KEY POINTS: • Critical assessment on in vitro biotechnology in Plumbago species • In vitro propagation of Plumbago and elicitation of plumbagin • Biosynthesis and sustainable production of plumbagin.

Phytochemical profiling and anti-fibrotic activities of Plumbago indica L. and Plumbago auriculata Lam. in thioacetamide-induced liver fibrosis in rats

This study aimed at investigating the chemical composition and the hepatoprotective activities of Plumbago indica L. and P. auriculata Lam. LC–MS/MS analyses for the hydroalcoholic extracts of the aerial parts of the two Plumbago species allowed the tentative identification of thirty and twenty-five compounds from P. indica and P. auriculata, respectively. The biochemical and histopathological alterations associated with thioacetamide (TAA)-induced liver fibrosis in rats were evaluated in vivo where rats received the two extracts at three different dose levels (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg p.o, daily) for 15 consecutive days with induction of hepatotoxicity by TAA (200 mg/kg/day, i.p.) at 14th and 15th days. Results of the present study showed a significant restoration in liver function biomarkers viz. alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), gamma glutamyl transferase and total bilirubin. The liver homogenates exhibited increased levels of antioxidant biomarkers: reduced glutathione (GSH) and catalase (CAT), accompanied with decline in malondialdehyde (MDA). Furthermore, treated groups exhibited a significant suppression in liver inflammatory cytokines: tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interlukin-6 (IL-6), and fibrotic biomarker: alpha smooth muscle relaxant. Histopathological examination of the liver showed normality of hepatocytes. Noteworthy, P. indica extract showed better hepatoprotective activity than P. auriculata, particularly at 200 mg/kg. To sum up, all these results indicated the hepatoprotective properties of both extracts, as well as their antifibrotic effect was evidenced by reduction in hepatic collagen deposition. However, additional experiments are required to isolate their individual secondary metabolites, assess the toxicity of the extracts and explore the involved mechanism of action.

Analytical quality-by-design (AQbD) guided development of a robust HPLC method for the quantification of plumbagin from Plumbago species

The present study was framed with the aim to develop a simple, efficient, and robust reverse-phase HPLC method for the quantification of plumbagin utilizing an analytical quality-by-design (AQbD) approach. HPLC was performed in Waters made high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with Waters 2996 photodiode array detector (detection at 254 nm), and reversed-phase Waters inertsil C18 column. The AQbD approach helps in finding the most suitable critical analytical attributes (CAAs) as well as high-risk critical method parameters (CMPs). Using the Box-Behnken Design experiment, the selected CMPs were optimized for the higher recovery of plumbagin. Further, the developed method was validated following International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) Q2 (R1) guidelines. The low divergence in intra- and inter-day experiments, and low LOD (2.4 µg/mL) and LOQ (7.2 µg/mL) values justify the high precision and sensitivity of the developed method. The developed method was further tested for the quantification of plumbagin from the two different plant source collected from two different climatic conditions. Results show that the maximum plumbagin content was found in P. indica roots. In conclusion, the AQbD approach could be used in other plant systems for the optimization of different variables to obtain a higher amount of targeted plant metabolite.

Effects of <i> in vitro </i> plant ages on the subsequent growth of <i> Plumbago indica </i> l. after <i> ex vitro </i> transplantation

The Indian leadwort (Plumbago indica L.) of the family Plumbaginaceae is a plant with high pharmaceutical value, as it contains plumbagin, a naphthoquinone with antibacterial, antifungal and anticancer properties. Among the propagation methods for the Indian leadwort, in vitro propagation is considered an effective method in producing disease-free transplants in a short period of time with high propagation rate. When plants grown in vitro are transferred to ex vitro condition, the environmental factors in the nursery house such as light, temperature, humidity and microorganism in the soil will affect their growth. Characteristics of transplants themselves is also critical for the subsequent growth. It is, thus, essential to establish the standards to evaluate and qualify in vitro plants for transplanting to ex vitro condition. Among these standards, the culture age of in vitro plants affects the maturations of their root, stem and leaves, which can in turn influence the acclimating ability and growth of in vitro plants after transplantation. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of the culture age of in vitro Indian leadwort plants on their performance during ex vitro stage. For this purpose, three different culture ages of uniform in vitro plants, 35, 42 and 49 day-old, were studied. After 28 days of cultivation in the nursery house under the light intensity of 70 ± 10 µmol m-2 s-1, temperature of 35 ± 4 oC and relative humidity (RH) of 60 ± 10%, all three treatments achieved 100% survival rate. Increased fresh and dry weights and percentage of dry matter after cultivation in ex vitro condition were not statistically different between 42 day-old and 49 day-old in vitro plants, but were significantly different between these plants and 35 day-old in vitro plants. The development of shoot and root in ex vitro stage of 42 day-old and 49 day-old in vitro plants was more balanced, as shown by the higher ratio of shoot/root dry weight, than 35 day-old in vitro plants. The results of this study showed that for this Plumbago species, bigger in vitro plants led to better growth during ex vitro stage. These results also indicated that it was possible to transfer in vitro Plumbago plants to ex vitro condition after 5 weeks of in vitro culture stage.

Plumbagin from two Plumbago species inhibits the growth of stomach and breast cancer cell lines

Plumbagin is a potent natural molecule that is found in several plants, especially in the genus of Plumbago. For centuries, plants containing this substance have been used therapeutically for various ailments according to the Indian traditional system of medicine. The aims of this study were, firstly, to compare the effectiveness of two different extraction methods for the isolation of plumbagin and, secondly, to compare the anti-proliferative effects of plumbagin in both field grown and in vitro grown plants of Plumbago indica L. and Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbagin was quantified from different parts, viz from the leaf, stem and root of both field and in vitro grown plants of Plumbago indica. Plumbagin was isolated using the serial maceration extraction method using methanol as solvent. Anti-proliferative activity of selected extracts was examined in both stomach cancer cell lines (AGS) and breast cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231). Quantification of plumbagin was performed by reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The leaves, stem and roots of the in vitro grown Plumbago indica yielded 70.98 mg g−1, 22.45 mg g−1and 342.15 mg g−1of content, respectively. This was higher when compared to the field grown parts (28.87 mg g−1, 11.54 mg g-1 and 2687 mg g−1). We have demonstrated that different extraction methods have varied yield of plumbagin. The isolated compound was then tested for its anti-proliferative activity. Also, we have confirmed apoptotic medicated cell death by nucleus staining to detect cell death by the treatment of different type of extract of both Plumbago indica L. and Plumbago zeylanica L.

Plumbagin reduces obesity and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease induced by fructose in rats through regulation of lipid metabolism, inflammation and oxidative stress

BackgroundChronic consumption of fructose causes obesity and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Currently available therapies have limitations; hence there is a need to screen new molecules. Plumbagin is a naphthoquinone present in the roots of Plumbago species which has hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective activities. MethodsRats were divided into five groups: normal control, disease control, orlistat, plumbagin (0.5 mg/kg and 1 mg/kg body weight). The normal control group received standard diet and drinking water while the remaining groups received fructose in drinking water alongwith the standard diet for 16 weeks. Orlistat and plumbagin were administered orally from the 9th week-16th week. The body weight, calorie intake and weights of visceral adipose tissue and liver were determined. Blood glucose, insulin, lipid profile and liver function tests were determined. Antioxidant and inflammatory parameters, lipids and collagen were determined in the liver. Gene expression of SREBP-1c and PPAR-α were determined in the liver. The histopathology of the adipose tissue and liver were also studied. ResultsFructose feeding resulted in a significant increase in the body weight gain, calorie intake, visceral fat, liver weight, blood glucose and insulin and caused dyslipidemia which was mitigated by plumbagin. Plumbagin exerted antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects in the liver and reduced the hepatic lipids. Plumbagin reduced the gene expression of SREBP-1c and increased that of PPAR-α. Plumbagin reduced the hypertrophy of adipocytes and ameliorated the degenerative changes in the liver. ConclusionPlumbagin thus seems to be a promising molecule for the management of obesity and NAFLD.

An expanded molecular phylogeny of Plumbaginaceae, with emphasis on Limonium (sea lavenders): Taxonomic implications and biogeographic considerations.

Plumbaginaceae is characterized by a history of multiple taxonomic rearrangements and lacks a broad molecular phylogenetic framework. Limonium is the most species‐rich genus of the family with ca. 600 species and cosmopolitan distribution. Its center of diversity is the Mediterranean region, where ca. 70% of all Limonium species are endemic. In this study, we sample 201 Limonium species covering all described infrageneric entities and spanning its wide geographic range, along with 64 species of other Plumbaginaceae genera, representing 23 out of 29 genera of the family. Additionally, 20 species of the sister family Polygonaceae were used as outgroup. Sequences of three chloroplast (trnL‐F, matK, and rbcL) and one nuclear (ITS) loci were used to infer the molecular phylogeny employing maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses. According to our results, within Plumbaginoideae, Plumbago forms a non‐monophyletic assemblage, with Plumbago europaea sister to Plumbagella, while the other Plumbago species form a clade sister to Dyerophytum. Within Limonioideae, Ikonnikovia is nested in Goniolimon, rejecting its former segregation as genus distinct from Goniolimon. Limonium is divided into two major clades: Limonium subg. Pteroclados s.l., including L. sect. Pteroclados and L. anthericoides, and L. subg. Limonium. The latter is divided into three well‐supported subclades: the monospecific L. sect. Limoniodendron sister to a clade comprising a mostly non‐Mediterranean subclade and a Mediterranean subclade. Our results set the foundation for taxonomic proposals on sections and subsections of Limonium, namely: (a) the newly described L. sect. Tenuiramosum, created to assign L. anthericoides at the sectional rank; (b) the more restricted circumscriptions of L. sect. Limonium (= L. sect. Limonium subsect. Genuinae) and L. sect. Sarcophyllum (for the Sudano‐Zambezian/Saharo‐Arabian clade); (c) the more expanded circumscription of L. sect. Nephrophyllum (including species of the L. bellidifolium complex); and (d) the new combinations for L. sect. Pruinosum and L. sect. Pteroclados subsect. Odontolepideae and subsect. Nobiles.

Chemosuppressive effect of plumbagin on human non-small lung cancer cell xenotransplanted zebrafish.

Plumbagin (5-hydroxy-2-methyl-1,4-napthoquinone) derived from Plumbago species is a potential anti-tumour agent. Plumbagin has been tested for anti-cancer activity in vitro and in vivo using mice model. To study the tumour suppressing efficacy of plumbagin using zebrafish model. Human Non-small lung cancer cell line were cultured in vitro and transplanted in to zebrafish. The development of tumour was confirmed by performing histology. The tumour was then allowed to progress in vivo and the fishes were administered with plumbagin orally for three continuous days. The tumour suppression capacity was monitored subsequently using transcriptosome analysis. The pixel integrated density obtained was converted into relative gene expression using IBM SPSS. The administration of plumbagin had an ability to suppress tumour and the size of the tumour were relatively lesser when compared with the control sample; it has also increased p53 gene expression. The study helps to conclude that plumbagin is an effective anti-tumour agent against human cancer cells based on the study in vivo in zebrafish.

Investigation of the antiobesity and antioxidant properties of wild Plumbago europaea and Plumbago auriculata from North Palestine

Historically, plants have proven their value as a source of phytochemicals with therapeutic potentials and recently they play an important role in the discovery of novel drugs. The current study aimed to investigate new antiobesity drugs from Plumbago europaea and Plumbago auriculata through the inhibition of the adsorption of dietary lipids. In vitro porcine pancreatic lipase inhibitory tests were conducted with weight reduction property as well as this study aimed to explore the antioxidant potential and to estimate total phenolic, flavonoid, and tannin contents in both of the studied species. Antioxidant capacity was evaluated using ferric reducing antioxidant power and DPPH assays, and porcine pancreatic lipase inhibitory tests were conducted using the UV spectrophotometric method, while total flavonoid, phenol, and tannin contents were estimated using standard phytochemical analytical methods. Antioxidant potential and total flavonoid, phenol, and tannin contents of P. europaea were significantly higher than those of P. auriculata, and both of the studied species have potential antiobesity activity in comparison with orlistat. Results of the present study show that both of the studied Plumbago species consist of bioactive compounds that can act as lipase inhibitors and therefore can be useful for the development of functional foods against obesity. It can also be used as a source of lead compounds for designing new antiobesity drugs. Further isolation, identification, and characterization of phyto-active compounds responsible for antiobesity action are required to evaluate the full therapeutic potentials of these plants.

Antimicrobial activity of plumbagin, a naturally occurring naphthoquinone from Plumbago rosea, against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans

Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus are opportunistic pathogens. Despite causing a number of independent infections, both pathogens can co-infect to cause urinary tract infections, skin infections, biofilm associated infections, sepsis and pneumonia. Infections of these two pathogens especially their biofilm associated infections are often difficult to treat using currently available anti-bacterial and anti-fungal agents. In order to identify a common anti-microbial agent which could confer a broad range of protection against their infections, we screened several phytochemicals and identified plumbagin (5-hydroxy-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone), a phytochemical from Plumbago species as a potent antimicrobial agent against S. aureus and C. albicans, with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 5μg/ml. Antimicrobial activity of plumbagin was validated using an ex-vivo porcine skin model. For better understanding of the antimicrobial activity of plumbagin, a Drosophila melanogaster infection model was used, where D. melanogaster was infected using S. aureus and C. albicans, or with both organisms. The fly’s survival rate was dramatically increased when infected flies were treated using plumbagin. Further, plumbagin was effective in preventing and dispersing catheter associated biofilms formed by these pathogens. The overall results of this work provides evidence that plumbagin, possesses an excellent antimicrobial activity which should be explored further for the treatment of S. aureus and C. albicans infections.

Screening of Bactericidal Activity of Selected Plumbago Species Against Bacterial Pathogens

The present study was undertaken to determine the antibacterial potential of Plumbago species viz., Plumbago zeylanica Linn., Plumbago auriculata Lam. and Plumbago rosea Linn. collected from various localities of South India. For the bio-efficacy studies six different extracts of Plumbago species with various concentrations viz., 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100µg/ml against Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial pathogens viz., Staphylococcus aureus (MTCC 737), Streptococcus pyogenes (MTCC 1928), Bacillus subtilis (MTCC 441), Klebsiella pneumoniae (MTCC 109), Morganella morganii (MTCC 662) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MTCC 1688) using well diffusion method. Among the eighteen different extracts of three different Plumbago species, highest frequency of antibacterial activity (54%) was recorded in P. rosea. The antibacterial activity of various extracts in different concentration of the selected Plumbago species are as follows: P. rosea (54%) > P. zeylanica (49%) > P. auriculata (40%). The ethanolic extract of all the Plumbago species revealed superior bactericidal activity compared to other tested extracts. The ethanolic extracts of P. zeylanica, P. auriculata and P. rosea showed 91%, 50% and 99% of activity against Gram positive pathogens and 66%, 26% and 89% of activity against Gram negative pathogens. The bioactive compound plumbagin and extract of aerial parts of Plumbago species show a wide spectrum of antibacterial activity. The compound shows promise as a new drug for various bacterial infectious diseases. Hence, this study offers a base of using Plumbago species as herbal alternative for the synthesis of antimicrobial agents.

Determination of Plumbagin in Plant Extracts and Polyherbal Formulations by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection

Plumbagin, a naturally occurring naphthoquinone derivative, is known to possess various pharmacological activities. A rapid, sensitive, and specific high-performance liquid chromatographic method using fluorescence detection is reported for the determination of plumbagin in two Plumbago species and five polyherbal formulations. The method employed a reverse phase C18 column with isocratic elution using 65:35 pH 3.2 methanol and 0.1% aqueous o-phosphoric acid at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. Plumbagin displayed maximal fluorescence with excitation at 264 nm and emission at 605 nm. A linear calibration relationship was obtained for 1 to 10 µg/mL plumbagin with limits of detection and quantitation of 8 ng/mL and 30 ng/mL, respectively. The relative standard deviation values for intraday and interday precision were less than 2%. The recoveries were greater than 97% with relative standard deviations less than 3%. This is the first study to employ high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection for the determination of plumbagin. The method was rapid, sensitive, and accurate for the analysis of plants and polyherbal formulations.

In vitro combinatory antimicrobial effect of plumbagin with oxacillin and tetracycline against Staphylococcus aureus.

Plumbagin (5-hydroxy-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone), a bicyclic naphthoquinone naturally distributed among Plumbago species, has been reported to have antimicrobial activity against a wide range of microorganisms. In this study, plumbagin was examined for its combinatory antimicrobial effect with tetracycline or oxacillin against nine strains of Staphylococcus aureus, including its methicillin- and multidrug-resistant strains. Minimum inhibitory concentrations were determined through the broth microdilution method, whereas the combinatory effect was evaluated according to the sum of fractional inhibitory concentration (ΣFIC) indices. Additive interactions were obtained for both combinations against most of the strains tested. Synergy was obtained for combination with oxacillin against two out of seven strains (ΣFIC range 0.273-0.281), both were methicillin resistant. Our results proved plumbagin as a compound suitable for anti-Staphylococcal combinatory testing. Moreover, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of plumbagin synergy with oxacillin against S. aureus strains, including its resistant forms.

Antifungal activity of Plumbago species against anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporidodes (Penz.) of chilli

The efficacy of aqueous leaf extracts of three Plumbago (Plumbago indica, P. capensis, P. zeylanica) species on anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides were assessed. Out of the extract of three plants screened, that of Plumbago indica showed the best result both in inhibition of conidial germination up to (98.9%), and radial mycelial growth (98.75%) of the pathogen over the control and in the pectinolytic enzyme studies also P. indica showed a minimum activity of Polymethyl esterase (1.91U), Polymethyl galacturonase (endo PMG-2.77%; exo PMG-0.028U) and Pectin trans eliminate; the least amount of sugar (endo PTE-17.14%; exo PTE-11.11U) was released in P. indica. In cellulolytic enzyme studies, the amount of viscosity loss due to the activity of 1,4-β endoglucanase was remarkably reduced (3.57%) in P. indica compared to the other two species. P. capensis showed moderate results; P. zeylanica showed minimum inhibition of the enzyme activity of the pathogen. Results show that among all three plumbago species tested, Plumbago indica was reported to be an effective plant extract against anthracnose fungus.

ChemInform Abstract: Development of Male-Fertility-Regulating Agents

Steroidal nonsteroidal plant-derived gonadotropin-related and immunological agents investigated for control of male fertility are reviewed with brief descriptions of their effects and illustrations of their structures. The physiology of the male reproductive system is presented as an introduction: an ideal male antifertility agent would inhibit spermatogenesis at the level of the Sertoli cells without affecting endogenous androgen production by Leydig cells needed for libido and potency. Androgens down-regulate their own production at physiological levels but few long-acting orally active derivatives are available. Anti-androgens with mixed androgen and progestin activity combined with a pure androgen are potentially useful. Androgen-progestin combinations are being tested by WHO as implants. Dozens of miscellaneous nonsteroidal compounds have been discovered serendipitously to have antifertility activity in men or male animals including alkylating agents antimetabolites antibiotics sulfa derivatives fungicides trichomonocides amebicides alpha blockers antimalarials coumarins and carbohydrate derivatives. Various plant alkaloids have been screened. Those of Hibiscus Vitex and Plumbago species as well as Tripterygium wilfordii glycosides which are being evaluated in combination with gossypol are mentioned here. Gossypol has been thoroughly tested in China but rejected because of its side effects particularly hypokalemic paralysis its low therapeutic index and uncertain recovery of fertility. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists and antagonists are being researched in combination with androgens with some success. The GnRH antagonists to date have low activity or cause histamine-related side effects at higher doses; the androgens require a new route such as a long-acting implant to overcome the need for daily injections. Immunological contraception for males has not progressed beyond the research stage.

Quality control standards for the roots of three plumbago species.

Physicochemical parameters of roots of three Plumbago species, Plumbago capensis, P. rosea and P. zeylanica belonging to Plumbaginaceae were analyzed. Microbial contamination, aflatoxins, pesticide residue and heavy metal content were also determined. Attempt has also been made to estimate the biologically active chemical plumbagin present in them and the data compared. The study ensures that the quality control parameters do help in the proper standardization of the crude drugs in drug development process for global acceptance.

HPTLC Method for the Quantification of Plumbagin in Three Plumbago Species

HPTLC Method for the Quantification of Plumbagin in Three Plumbago Species

Isolation of secondary metabolites from roots ofPlumbago auriculata Lam. by countercurrent chromatography

Centrifugal liquid-liquid partition chromatography presents significant advantages for the separation and purification of plant metabolites owing to the short operational time of the process and the elimination of possible irreversible adsorption of compounds. The crude chloroform extract from roots of Plumbago auriculata was analysed by countercurrent chromatography using hexane:ethyl acetate:methanol:water (40:10:10:2, v/v) as solvent system. The isolation of the naphthoquinones plumbagin and epi-isoshinanolone, the steroids sitosterol and 3-O-glucosylsitosterol, plumbagic and palmitic acids was easily achieved. Naphthoquinones are typical components of Plumbago species and they show interesting biological activities.