Pleistocene Human Fossils Research Articles

Nasopharyngeal morphology contributes to understanding the "muddle in the middle" of the Pleistocene hominin fossil record.

The late archeologist Glynn Isaac first applied the term "muddle in the middle" to a poorly understood period in the Middle Pleistocene human fossil record. This study uses the nasopharyngeal boundaries as a source of traits that may inform this unclear period of human evolution. The nasopharynx lies at the nexus of several vital physiological systems, yet relatively little is known about its importance in human evolution. We analyzed a geographically diverse contemporary Homo sapiens growth series (n= 180 adults, 237 nonadults), Homo neanderthalensis (La Chapelle aux Saints 1, La Ferrassie 1, Forbes Quarry 1, Monte Circeo 1, and Saccopastore 1), mid-Pleistocene Homo (Atapuerca 5, Kabwe 1, Petralona 1, and Steinheim 1), and two Homo erectus sensu lato (KNM-ER 3733 and Sangiran 17). Methods include traditional (Analysis 1) and 3D geometric morphometric analysis (Analysis 2). H. erectus exhibited tall, narrow nasopharyngeal shape, a robust, ancestral morphology. Kabwe 1 and Petralona 1 plotted among H. sapiens in Analysis 2, exhibiting relatively shorter and vertical cartilaginous Eustachian tubes and vertical medial pterygoid plates. Atapuerca 5 and Steinheim 1 exhibited horizontal vomeral orientation similar to H. neanderthalensis, indicating greater relative soft palate length and anteroposterior nasopharynx expansion. They may exhibit synapomorphies with H. neanderthalensis, supporting the accretionary hypothesis. Species-level differences were found among H. sapiens and H. neanderthalensis, including relatively longer dilator tubae muscles and extreme facial airorhynchy among Neanderthals. Furthermore, H. neanderthalensis were autapomorphic in exhibiting horizontal pterygoid plate orientation similar to human infants, suggesting that they may have had inferiorly low placement of the torus tubarius and Eustachian tube orifice on the lateral nasopharyngeal wall in life. This study supports use of osseous nasopharyngeal boundaries both for morphological characters and understanding evolution of otitis media susceptibility in living humans.

Late Pleistocene human fossils in Japanese Archipelago

The fossil human remains of the Japanese archipelago represent an abundant documentation, with diverse and complex origins. Essentially, populations appear to come from Southeast Asia, moving northward during phases of low sea level, during ice ages. However, part of the population would also have come from the Korean peninsula, via a almost-connected land bridge then established during the lowering of sea levels. An additional northern influence is also possible. Human bone remains were in limestone rock crevices, shelter, and caves, probably buried there. Their conservation is often delicate but informative enough to consider the Pleistocene people in Japanese Archipelago.

Late Middle Pleistocene Harbin cranium represents a new Homo species

Late Middle Pleistocene Harbin cranium represents a new Homo species

Massive cranium from Harbin in northeastern China establishes a new Middle Pleistocene human lineage

It has recently become clear that several human lineages coexisted with Homo sapiens during the late Middle and Late Pleistocene. Here, we report an archaic human fossil that throws new light on debates concerning the diversification of the Homo genus and the origin of H. sapiens. The fossil was recovered in Harbin city in northeastern China, with a minimum uranium-series age of 146 ka. This cranium is one of the best preserved Middle Pleistocene human fossils. Its massive size, with a large cranial capacity (∼1,420 mL) falling in the range of modern humans, is combined with a mosaic of primitive and derived characters. It differs from all the other named Homo species by presenting a combination of features, such as long and low cranial vault, a wide and low face, large and almost square orbits, gently curved but massively developed supraorbital torus, flat and low cheekbones with a shallow canine fossa, and a shallow palate with thick alveolar bone supporting very large molars. The excellent preservation of the Harbin cranium advances our understanding of several less-complete late Middle Pleistocene fossils from China, which have been interpreted as local evolutionary intermediates between the earlier species Homo erectus and later H. sapiens. Phylogenetic analyses based on parsimony criteria and Bayesian tip-dating suggest that the Harbin cranium and some other Middle Pleistocene human fossils from China, such as those from Dali and Xiahe, form a third East Asian lineage, which is a part of the sister group of the H. sapiens lineage. Our analyses of such morphologically distinctive archaic human lineages from Asia, Europe, and Africa suggest that the diversification of the Homo genus may have had a much deeper timescale than previously presumed. Sympatric isolation of small populations combined with stochastic long-distance dispersals is the best fitting biogeographical model for interpreting the evolution of the Homo genus.

Chronological problems in Chinese human fossil sites

Archeologists and chronologists have realized that dating age divergence exists in some human fossil sites. However, this problem has not been systematically elaborated and studied to date. This paper makes statistics and analysis on the dating results of 86 published Chinese human fossil sites and attempts to clarify this problem. We find that the U-series dating method has the largest proportion of application and occupies a prominent position in each dating method, 37 sites use one dating method, and 28 sites utilize more than two (including two) methods. Dating age divergence uses different methods in the same site, of which 17 sites are with large age divergence. We assume that the following are the reasons for the large dating age divergence in the same site: The taphonomy problems and the difference of the dating method itself. In summary, the problem of the dating age divergence in the same site is common. The taphonomy problems of human fossil sites must be discovered and corrected through multiple dating methods. The difference of the dating method itself also needs the combination of multiple dating methods for evaluation and judgment. We suggest the following multiple dating strategies: Early Pleistocene human fossil sites should mainly rely on paleomagnetic dating, and 26Al/10Be burial dating, climatic stratigraphy, and ESR dating methods should be combined to obtain a relatively accurate human fossil age. Middle Pleistocene sites should be based on paleomagnetic dating, climatic stratigraphy, 26Al/10Be burial dating, U series, ESR/U series, TT-OSL, and pIRIR dating methods. Three or more dating methods must be selected for cross-examination. Late Pleistocene site dating must be performed on the basis of U series, 14C, and OSL dating methods. 14C dating and DNA analysis can be cautiously conducted in Late Pleistocene sites. The use of multiple dating methods can avoid accidental errors caused by only one dating method, especially in the cave sites of Middle and Late Pleistocene. The summary of the dating results for 86 Chinese human fossil sites shows that some sites have applied multiple dating methods. After cross-checking, the following sites obtained reliable ages: Yuanmou, Zhoukoudian Localities, Bailong Cave, Dali, Panxian Dadong, Jinniushan, Xujiayao, Tianyuan Cave, Shuidonggou, and Xiaogushan. Certain sites should be further checked by adding dating methods, such as, Yunxian, Hualongdong, Maba, Changyang, Hexian, Ganqian Cave, Xinglong Cave, Luna Cave, Huanglong Cave, Fuyan Cave, Wuguidong Cave, Xianren Cave, Tongzi Cave, Mao-Mao-dong Cave, Chuandong, and Maludong. Twenty-one sites, such as, Meipu Longgu Cave, Jimuyan Cave, Baojiyan Cave, Guoshandong Cave, and Zhuzailong Cave, still have no dating research. We must make a detailed investigation and reinvestigation because the fossil discovery records of these sites may be unclear, or they may have unsuitable dating materials. Obtaining some ages from these sites is significant. The accurate age of human fossil is the basis for establishing the correct theory of human evolution in China. Multiple dating strategies should be adopted for the newly discovered human fossil sites. Such strategies should be used to check and evaluate the age of some important Chinese human fossil sites that have been previously discovered. Doing so can further improve the reliability of the dating results for Chinese human fossil sites.

Late Pleistocene paleoenvironment of southern China: Clay mineralogical and geochemical analyses from Luna Cave, Guangxi, China

A number of important early Late Pleistocene human fossils have been found in southern China. These new data have contributed to a major revision of the traditional Out of Africa model that argues modern humans did not disperse out of Africa until after 60 ka. At the same time, these findings have attracted increased attention by paleoclimate specialists (e.g., vertebrate paleontologists, sedimentologists) interested in identifying the characteristics and understanding the living environment of the region in which these early Late Pleistocene modern humans lived in. Unfortunately, research focused on the reconstruction of the Late Pleistocene paleoenvironment in southern China is still very limited. Here, we present an analysis of the clay mineral assemblage and geochemical characteristics of the sedimentary deposits from Luna Cave, one of these important early Late Pleistocene modern human sites in southern China. The results from the sedimentological analyses are consistent with previous paleontological and geological studies that showed the paleoclimate was strongly influenced by the East Asian monsoon and that the Late Pleistocene environment was relatively stable warm and humid. Further studies of coeval sites from the region are necessary to determine whether this is a consistent pattern across southern China or specific to the Bubing Basin.

Did Our Species Evolve in Subdivided Populations across Africa, and Why Does It Matter?

We challenge the view that our species, Homo sapiens, evolved within a single population and/or region of Africa. The chronology and physical diversity of Pleistocene human fossils suggest that morphologically varied populations pertaining to the H. sapiens clade lived throughout Africa. Similarly, the African archaeological record demonstrates the polycentric origin and persistence of regionally distinct Pleistocene material culture in a variety of paleoecological settings. Genetic studies also indicate that present-day population structure within Africa extends to deep times, paralleling a paleoenvironmental record of shifting and fractured habitable zones. We argue that these fields support an emerging view of a highly structured African prehistory that should be considered in human evolutionary inferences, prompting new interpretations, questions, and interdisciplinary research directions.

Recent research progress and popular issues on Chinese human evolution

Since human fossils were first discovered in Ordos, Inner Mongolia and Zhoukoudian, Beijing in the early 20th century, more than 70 Pleistocene human fossil sites have been found within China. Over the last decade, new human fossil findings in Tianyuan Cave, Chongzuo, Daoxian, Xuchang, among others and related research progress have directed the focus of international paleoanthropology communities to further investigate Chinese human origin and evolution. Some popular research issues include the emergence, evolution, and variation of Chinese Homo erectus and the existence of ancient humans prior to Homo erectus . The topics also extend to the emergence and dispersal of archaic and early modern Homo sapiens in China and the presence of gene communication between Chinese and European ancient humans. Based on the new discoveries of Chinese human fossils and respective research progress, several conclusions can be made. (1) Although some suspicious early human members or artifical stone tools have been found in areas in China, such as Longgupo, Fanchang, Jianshi, and Nihewan basin, these findings are not approved by the international community nor have they been proven to be actual human fossils. As of now, human fossils aging as early as 2.0 million years ago have yet to be discovered in China. As of now, human fossils aging as early as 2.0 million years ago have not yet to be discovered in China. (2) The earliest Homo erectus fossil unearthed from the stratum is the Lantian Gongwangling skull, which is about 1.15−1.63 million years old. (3) More than 10 Homo erectus fossils were found in China, such as Zhoukoudian, Hexian, Nanjing, and so on. During the evolutionary stage of Chinese Homo erectus , the most controversial issue is “whether they are a side–branch of human evolution.” The physical characteristics of Chinese Homo erectus are complex, and the internal variation is very big; thus, different Homo erectus branches or isolated populations probably existed in the late Middle Pleistocene of China. (4) Around 300−100 thousand years ago, some archaic Homo sapiens survived in China; they exhibit a morphological mosaic of East Asian and western contemporaries. During this period, it is probable that many types of ancient humans of genetic mixture existed in China. New human fossil evidences of two early Late Pleistocene crania from Lingjing, Xuchang provide a morphological mosaic relative to their western contemporaries. The two fossils exhibit similar pan-Old World trends in encephalization and in the supraorbital, neurocranial vault, and nuchal gracilization and reflect east Asian ancestry in a having low, sagitally flat and inferiorly broad neurocranium. They also display an occipital and temporal labyrinthine morphology similar to that of the Neandertals. This morphological combination reflects Pleistocene human evolutionary patterns in general biology, regional continuity, and interregional population dynamics. (5) Early modern human fossils have been found from several other sites in China, including Huanglong Cave, Zhiren Cave, and Daoxian. The findings indicate that early modern humans emerged about 100 ka BP in southern China, and fully modern morphology appeared 120−80 ka BP in some regions of southern China. At the same time, in northern China, human groups represented by Xujiayao still maintained primitive morphology and did not evolve into early moderns. Both early modern humans and fully modern humans probably first emerged in southern China, and then dispersed north. Available fossil evidence shows that Late Pleistocene humans in southern China exhibit pronounced variations, and several different evolutionary groups may exist. (6) Based on current human fossils and research progress, it is difficult or impossible to determine if early Chinese modern humans descended from Africa, local archaic humans, or were a crossbreed of the two.

Three-dimensional craniofacial reconstruction of an ancient Qihe human skull

In 2011, a Qihe human skull with the mandible, dating to about 10000 years ago, was found in Zhangping, Fujian Province. The skull exhibits mixed physical characteristics of both Neolithic Southern and Neolithic Northern populations, together with some primitive traits of Late Pleistocene human fossils; therefore, it has become one of the most important materials to investigate Neolithic southern human physical characteristics and migration in the Late Pleistocene to Holocene transition. There are significant morphological differences between the Qihe and recent humans; for example, the Qihe skull has a long cranial vault, a larger cranial cavity, a higher and narrower face, a wider and shorter nose bone, and lower orbits. In this paper, we propose a novel method to generate the 3D facial appearance of the Qihe human skull based on the craniofacial morphology relationship of recent human and anthropologist’s findings. Our method consisted of three steps. (1) High-resolution computed tomography (CT) was used to acquire series of images, and commercial software Mimics 16.0 was used to create the digital model of the Qihe skull. Because Qihe skull had been divided into the maxilla and mandible, we interactively reassembled these two parts and transformed the whole skull into a standardized Frankfurt Horizontal coordinate system. After exterior point clouds of Qihe skull were extracted, the Iterative Closest Point (ICP) algorithm and generic thin-plate spline (TPS) non-rigid algorithm were used to alignment the Qihe skull with one average skull from the recent human database. The dense corresponding point clouds of the Qihe skull were used to perform the craniofacial reconstruction. (2) We then applied principal component analysis (PCA) to reduce data dimensions and to calculate parameters of the skull and face of each sample in the recent human database. Least square regression was used to quantitatively represent the craniofacial morphology of the recent human. Then, the parameters of Qihe skull were input to predict three-dimensional facial appearance. Facial generation face of this step was found to be consistent and objective. (3) Because craniofacial morphology of the Qihe and recent human was similar but inconsistent, we developed an easy-to-use interactive tool to edit the facial appearance based on statistical shape model and an anthropologist’s findings. PCA was again used to construct a facial statistical shape model based on the dense corresponding point clouds. Variations in these point clouds, which were captured in every principal component (PC), were analyzed to observe shape variability. We changed the coefficients of corresponding PCs to produce multiple facial appearances and choose the best three-dimensional facial appearance. Finally, the geometric shape of the neurocranium and facial morphological characters of the Neolithic human were vividly shown in a handmade drawing. In comparison to manual craniofacial reconstruction, our method is faster, easier, and more efficient for producing facial appearance of Qihe skull via craniofacial morphology and anthropologist’s finds. Using the proposed method, the facial appearance of Qihe skull is displayed. Furthermore, our method provides efficient technical support and references for craniofacial reconstruction of ancient human skulls, which may further be applicable for other fossils and skeletons.

Direct radiocarbon dating and DNA analysis of the Darra-i-Kur (Afghanistan) human temporal bone

The temporal bone discovered in the 1960s from the Darra-i-Kur cave in Afghanistan is often cited as one of the very few Pleistocene human fossils from Central Asia. Here we report the first direct radiocarbon date for the specimen and the genetic analyses of DNA extracted and sequenced from two areas of the bone. The new radiocarbon determination places the find to ∼4500 cal BP (∼2500 BCE) contradicting an assumed Palaeolithic age of ∼30,000 years, as originally suggested. The DNA retrieved from the specimen originates from a male individual who carried mitochondrial DNA of the modern human type. The petrous part yielded more endogenous ancient DNA molecules than the squamous part of the same bone. Molecular dating of the Darra-i-Kur mitochondrial DNA sequence corroborates the radiocarbon date and suggests that the specimen is younger than previously thought. Taken together, the results consolidate the fact that the human bone is not associated with the Pleistocene-age deposits of Darra-i-Kur; instead it is intrusive, possibly re-deposited from upper levels dating to much later periods (Neolithic). Despite its Holocene age, the Darra-i-Kur specimen is, so far, the first and only ancient human from Afghanistan whose DNA has been sequenced.

Longgudong, an Early Pleistocene site in Jianshi, South China, with stratigraphic association of human teeth and lithics

In this paper we report on Longgudong, an Early Pleistocene cave site in south China which was systematically excavated in 1999 and 2000, and where human teeth and associated stone artifacts were discovered within the same stratigraphic layer. The age of this site was estimated from faunal comparisons and palaeomagnetism and has been attributed to the Early Pleistocene, most probably the earlier Early Pleistocene. The human teeth from this site have been well studied. However, the stone artifacts are still unknown to most scholars. This paper thus presents an analysis of the lithics as the first firmly demonstrated stone tools associated with Early Pleistocene human fossils in south China.

The earliest securely dated hominin fossil in Italy and evidence of Acheulian occupation during glacial MIS 16 at Notarchirico (Venosa, Basilicata, Italy)

ABSTRACTThe Early Middle Pleistocene site of Notarchirico (Basilicata, Italy) is a 7‐m‐thick fluvially emplaced sedimentary sequence rich in volcanic materials coming from the Monte Vulture stratovolcano. This site consists of 11 archaeological layers, some of which have yielded handaxes. One femur attributed to Homo heidelbergensis was also recovered from an upper level. We present in this study new 40Ar/39Ar and electron spin resonance ages that delimit the time of occupation of Notarchirico to between 670 ± 4 ka (14 ka) and 614 ± 4 ka (12 ka), therefore spanning mainly the glacial Marine Isotope Stage 16. Handaxes found in archaeosurface F are now securely dated to between 670 ± 4 ka (14 ka) and 661 ± 4 ka (14 ka) and prove that hominid populations living in southern Italy used Acheulian technology as early as the beginning of this stage. Futhermore, we placed the age of the human femur between 661 ± 4 ka (14 ka) and 614± 4 ka (12 ka). This fossil is therefore the oldest Middle Pleistocene human fossil discovered in Italy so far. Thanks to this new chronological framework, Notarchirico is now a key site in our understanding of the Early Acheulian culture in Western Europe.

Middle pleistocene human remains from Tourville-la-Rivière (Normandy, France) and their archaeological context.

Despite numerous sites of great antiquity having been excavated since the end of the 19th century, Middle Pleistocene human fossils are still extremely rare in northwestern Europe. Apart from the two partial crania from Biache-Saint-Vaast in northern France, all known human fossils from this period have been found from ten sites in either Germany or England. Here we report the discovery of three long bones from the same left upper limb discovered at the open-air site of Tourville-la-Rivière in the Seine Valley of northern France. New U-series and combined US-ESR dating on animal teeth produced an age range for the site of 183 to 236 ka. In combination with paleoecological indicators, they indicate an age toward the end of MIS 7. The human remains from Tourville-la-Rivière are attributable to the Neandertal lineage based on morphological and metric analyses. An abnormal crest on the left humerus represents a deltoid muscle enthesis. Micro- and or macro-traumas connected to repetitive movements similar to those documented for professional throwing athletes could be origin of abnormality.

Examining the upper respiratory tract of Neanderthals and other later Pleistocene human fossils: analysis of form and function (17.6)

Neanderthals are one of the most intensely studied groups of extinct humans, as aspects of their phylogeny and functional morphology remain controversial. They have long been described as cold adapted but recent analyses of their nasal anatomy suggest that traits formerly considered adaptations may be the result of genetic drift. Here we describe our previous and current studies on the nasal complex (NC; nose, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, connecting pathways) of Neanderthals and other later Pleistocene fossils from Europe and Africa. A geographically diverse sample of modern human crania was used to establish an anatomical baseline for populations inhabiting cold and tropical climates. Nasal complex morphology was analyzed via traditional and geometric morphometrics and CT imaging. Results indicate that Neanderthals possessed NC's that fall outside the range of modern human variation in several traits, including paranasal sinus morphology. In particular, they exhibited greater relative piriform aperture area (the product of width and height) and a relatively longer cartilaginous Eustachian tube as measured from Procrustes‐corrected sets of three‐dimensional coordinate data. The NC components of the upper respiratory tract remain a critical but poorly understood area that may yet offer novel insight into one of the greatest continuing controversies in paleoanthropology.Grant Funding Source: Supported by NSF and IGERT

Hominin footprints from early Pleistocene deposits at Happisburgh, UK.

Investigations at Happisburgh, UK, have revealed the oldest known hominin footprint surface outside Africa at between ca. 1 million and 0.78 million years ago. The site has long been recognised for the preservation of sediments containing Early Pleistocene fauna and flora, but since 2005 has also yielded humanly made flint artefacts, extending the record of human occupation of northern Europe by at least 350,000 years. The sediments consist of sands, gravels and laminated silts laid down by a large river within the upper reaches of its estuary. In May 2013 extensive areas of the laminated sediments were exposed on the foreshore. On the surface of one of the laminated silt horizons a series of hollows was revealed in an area of ca. 12 m2. The surface was recorded using multi-image photogrammetry which showed that the hollows are distinctly elongated and the majority fall within the range of juvenile to adult hominin foot sizes. In many cases the arch and front/back of the foot can be identified and in one case the impression of toes can be seen. Using foot length to stature ratios, the hominins are estimated to have been between ca. 0.93 and 1.73 m in height, suggestive of a group of mixed ages. The orientation of the prints indicates movement in a southerly direction on mud-flats along the river edge. Early Pleistocene human fossils are extremely rare in Europe, with no evidence from the UK. The only known species in western Europe of a similar age is Homo antecessor, whose fossil remains have been found at Atapuerca, Spain. The foot sizes and estimated stature of the hominins from Happisburgh fall within the range derived from the fossil evidence of Homo antecessor.

Complete mitochondrial genome sequence of a Middle Pleistocene cave bear reconstructed from ultrashort DNA fragments

Although an inverse relationship is expected in ancient DNA samples between the number of surviving DNA fragments and their length, ancient DNA sequencing libraries are strikingly deficient in molecules shorter than 40 bp. We find that a loss of short molecules can occur during DNA extraction and present an improved silica-based extraction protocol that enables their efficient retrieval. In combination with single-stranded DNA library preparation, this method enabled us to reconstruct the mitochondrial genome sequence from a Middle Pleistocene cave bear (Ursus deningeri) bone excavated at Sima de los Huesos in the Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain. Phylogenetic reconstructions indicate that the U. deningeri sequence forms an early diverging sister lineage to all Western European Late Pleistocene cave bears. Our results prove that authentic ancient DNA can be preserved for hundreds of thousand years outside of permafrost. Moreover, the techniques presented enable the retrieval of phylogenetically informative sequences from samples in which virtually all DNA is diminished to fragments shorter than 50 bp.

Endostructural characterization of the H. heidelbergensis dental remains from the early Middle Pleistocene site of Tighenif, Algeria

The early Middle Pleistocene human fossil assemblage from Tighenif, Algeria, likely samples some among the earliest representatives of the Homo heidelbergensis morph. A previous study of three deciduous molars from this assemblage revealed an inner structural signature (crown tissue proportions and enamel thickness topography) roughly approximating the modern human figures. By using advanced techniques of microtomographic-based 3D virtual imaging and quantitative analysis, we significantly extend here the currently available record to 22 permanent teeth, mostly from the mandibular dentition, and provide the first detailed description of the structural condition characterizing this North African deme near the Lower-Middle Pleistocene boundary. Together with a certain degree of individual variation, the teeth of Tighenif exhibit a structural pattern combining primitive, derived, and unique features. The lower molars display a set of enamel-dentine junction nonmetric traits more frequently found in recent humans than in Neanderthals, but also a blend of Neanderthal- and modern-like characteristics in terms of structural conformation and crown tissue proportions. They also exhibit relatively large pulp cavities, with a rather high root bifurcation and well-separated pulp canals, a pattern more closely approximating the condition reported for Late Pleistocene Aterians.

An Enlarged Parietal Foramen in the Late Archaic Xujiayao 11 Neurocranium from Northern China, and Rare Anomalies among Pleistocene Homo

We report here a neurocranial abnormality previously undescribed in Pleistocene human fossils, an enlarged parietal foramen (EPF) in the early Late Pleistocene Xujiayao 11 parietal bones from the Xujiayao (Houjiayao) site, northern China. Xujiayao 11 is a pair of partial posteromedial parietal bones from an adult. It exhibits thick cranial vault bones, arachnoid granulations, a deviated posterior sagittal suture, and a unilateral (right) parietal lacuna with a posteriorly-directed and enlarged endocranial vascular sulcus. Differential diagnosis indicates that the perforation is a congenital defect, an enlarged parietal foramen, commonly associated with cerebral venous and cranial vault anomalies. It was not lethal given the individual’s age-at-death, but it may have been associated with secondary neurological deficiencies. The fossil constitutes the oldest evidence in human evolution of this very rare condition (a single enlarged parietal foramen). In combination with developmental and degenerative abnormalities in other Pleistocene human remains, it suggests demographic and survival patterns among Pleistocene Homo that led to an elevated frequency of conditions unknown or rare among recent humans.

Fossil human remains from Bolomor Cave (Valencia, Spain)

Systematic excavations carried out since 1989 at Bolomor Cave have led to the recovery of four Pleistocene human fossil remains, consisting of a fibular fragment, two isolated teeth, and a nearly complete adult parietal bone. All of these specimens date to the late Middle and early Late Pleistocene (MIS 7-5e). The fibular fragment shows thick cortical bone, an archaic feature found in non-modern (i.e. non-Homo sapiens) members of the genus Homo. Among the dental remains, the lack of a midtrigonid crest in the M1 represents a departure from the morphology reported for the majority of Neandertal specimens, while the large dimensions and pronounced shoveling of the marginal ridges in the C1 are similar to other European Middle and late Pleistocene fossils. The parietal bone is very thick, with dimensions that generally fall above Neandertal fossils and resemble more closely the Middle Pleistocene Atapuerca (SH) adult specimens. Based on the presence of archaic features, all the fossils from Bolomor are attributed to the Neandertal evolutionary lineage.

Dentoalveolar paleopathology of the early modern humans from Zhirendong, South China

The fragmentary early Late Pleistocene, early modern human remains from Zhirendong, south China, present a suite of dentoalveolar pathologies and anomalies. The lesions include lower molar buccal alveolar resorption (Zhiren 1), massive dental caries in a mandibular molar associated with hypercementosis (Zhiren 2), and bilateral mesial premolar (P3) periapical lesions (granulomata with a probable left abscess) (Zhiren 3). The Zhiren 3 periapical lesions, given their bilaterality and the non-pathological incisor and canine alveoli, suggest dens evaginatus, although absence of the Zhiren 3 dentition prevents full evaluation of this diagnosis. These periodontal abnormalities join a number of similar lesions in Pleistocene humans, of varying severity. The carious lesion is noteworthy, given the rarity of them in the Pleistocene human fossil record. In addition, Zhiren 3 exhibits unilateral P3 rotation and bilateral I1 rotation (winging).