Playground Observations Research Articles

Evaluation of the Little Rock Green Schoolyard initiative: a quasi-experimental study protocol

BackgroundEvidence suggests that access to green schoolyards may facilitate vigorous play and lead to increased physical activity, which could lead to improved academic outcomes and reduce excess childhood weight gain. Greener schoolyards can also provide additional outdoor amenities that help the community at large. The Little Rock Green Schoolyard Initiative, a program aiming to promote outdoor learning and play in two of the city’s community schools, provides a natural experiment to evaluate the role of such interventions. This article presents the protocols and study plans that will be used to evaluate this community-led initiative on several outcomes including physical activity, sleep quality, use of schoolgrounds, and perceptions of the school environment. Administrative datasets will be used to assess exposure to green schoolyard improvements on academic achievement, attendance, and disciplinary referrals during elementary school.MethodsData will be gathered in two community schools where the green schoolyard improvements are taking place and in two demographically-matched comparison schools located elsewhere within the Little Rock School District. Data will be collected before, during, and after the green schoolyard improvements go into effect. Physical activity and sleep quality will be measured using actigraphy. Physical activity will also be assessed through direct playground observations during recess and outside of school hours. During the final year of the study, administrative data will be assembled and evaluated using difference-in-differences estimation and synthetic controls, two causal inference methods from the program evaluation literature.DiscussionThe study is designed to provide new insights into the design, implementation, and evaluation of playgrounds among schoolchildren, especially those who are at risk of developing severe obesity during their elementary school years. The research herein will develop empirical data, elucidate potential mechanisms, and practical experience for future study, policymaking, and health services.

Being Deaf in Mainstream Schools: The Effect of a Hearing Loss in Children's Playground Behaviors.

Naturalistic playground observations are a rich source of information when studying the social interactions of preschool children. On the playground, children can interact with their peers, explore different places and activities, and engage in different types of play. For deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) children, interactions at a playground can be more difficult because of the large number of auditory stimuli surrounding them. Constraints in the access to the social world on the playground might hamper DHH children’s interactions with their typically hearing (TH) peers, activities, and play. This pilot study aimed to examine the playground behaviors of preschool DHH children across three aspects: social levels, type of activities, and play choices. For this purpose, 12 preschool DHH children were observed during recess time, and their behaviors were coded and compared to their 85 TH peers. The preliminary findings indicate that DHH children spend less time in social interactions compared to their TH peers and that they still face difficulties when socially engaging with their TH peers. These findings suggest that interventions should focus on three aspects: the physical environment awareness of TH peers about communicating with DHH children, and the use of exercise play to facilitate social interactions between DHH children and their TH peers.

Fair Play: A Qualitative Exploration of Visitor Behavior at PlayGrand Adventures All-Abilities Playground

People with disabilities in the United States have access to a fraction of engaging play experiences available to others due to playground design choices, minimal legal requirements, and societal acceptance of the status quo. PlayGrand Adventures, the first and largest all-abilities playground in North Texas, meets this need by providing engaging play opportunities for everyone. This qualitative case study explores and describes community engagement at PlayGrand Adventures, informed by principles of environmental reciprocity supported by Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (1986) and Gibson’s Affordance Theory (1979). The researcher collected data on community perception and engagement via a questionnaire, semi-structured interviews, and playground observations. The study fills a gap in academic research on all-abilities playgrounds in the United States to increase awareness of the systemic underserving of people with disabilities in this country and provides a potential solution. The researcher offers initial recommendations for PlayGrand Adventures’ future development and implementation with implications for replication in other cities.

Towards quality early childhood development for refugee children: An exploratory study of a Grade R class in a Durban child care centre

Background: As populations of refugee children increase globally, strategies for providing quality and relevant educational experiences for this group of children has become a priority. This is because research suggests that refugee children tend to experience higher school dropout rates due to, among other factors, poverty, lack of shelter and inadequate nutrition. Aim: This article reports on an exploratory study of Grade R teachers’ interactions with refugee children in a child care centre in Durban and the ways in which these might contribute to the children’s readiness for Grade 1 in mainstream schools. Setting: The study was located in a Grade R class in a Durban refugee child care centre catering for children from neighbouring African countries. Methods: The study adopted a qualitative ethnographic approach involving classroom and playground observations, as well as informal open-ended interviews with the Grade R teacher and her assistant. Results: The findings suggest that several factors, including a high teacher–learner ratio (1:48), poor classroom management and pedagogical practices, inadequate and inappropriate resources and a lack of professional development opportunities for teachers influenced the nature of interactions between the refugee children and their teachers. Conclusions: The findings have negative implications for the children’s readiness for Grade 1 and beyond. The findings suggest that unless the provision of early childhood development and education (ECDE) in this centre is significantly improved, for example, by addressing the factors identified in the study, the refugee children in the facility will continue to be poorly prepared for mainstream schooling.

Is play a choice? Application of the capabilities approach to children with disabilities on the school playground

ABSTRACTOutdoor play is important for children’s development and an area in which many children with disabilities struggle at school. The aim of this multiple-perspective case study was to understand educator play decision-making for children with disabilities within one low socioeconomic status and culturally and linguistically diverse community. Data collection included playground observations of children with disabilities and educators and interviews with teaching assistants, teachers, and a vice principal. Data were analysed inductively and thematically, with findings aligned to the capabilities approach. School staff and typically developing children appeared to not value the children with disabilities as players or learners, and had a limited understanding of the children’s home and community play environments. School staff had low expectations of children with disabilities’ play and learning capacities. Participants perceived children’s playground presence and not breaking rules as sufficient. Despite educators stating that children with disabilities had choice on the playground, the children experienced few meaningful choices due to relative skills delays and an unsupportive environment. Applying the capabilities approach may lead to greater choice through valuing all children as learners, players, and community members; raising play and learning expectations; and creating play spaces that support the play of all children.

The use of a peer-mediated intervention for a pupil with autism spectrum disorder: Pupil, peer and staff perceptions

Aim:There is promising evidence for the use of Peer-Mediated Interventions (PMI) to facilitate pupil-peer relationships for pupils with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study aimed to evaluate an innovative PMI developed and delivered in collaboration with school staff for a Year 3 male pupil with ASD, and his typically developing peers.Method/Rationale:The intervention included whole class awareness raising sessions and small group peer network sessions. The mixed method evaluation measured the process and outcomes of the intervention. Data collection included interviews with the target pupil and school staff and a peer focus group to gain an understanding of participants’ experiences. Structured playground observations of pupil-peer interaction were also undertaken at three time points.Findings:Findings indicate that this small-scale PMI had a positive impact at the level of the target pupil and peers. An increase in appropriate initiations and responses by peers and the pupil were apparent. Increased peer acceptance and skills in interacting with the target pupil were reported by school staff. Staff and peers also reported positive changes in the target pupil’s social skills and enjoyment of working within a group.Limitations:Potential drawbacks included the ‘exclusive’ nature of the peer network group and wider school staff’s knowledge of the intervention. Generalisation of the skills learnt to outside the network sessions and transference of skills to pupils within the wider class were also limited.Conclusions:Key factors facilitating the implementation of this intervention within a school context were identified and future implications are discussed.

Effective Yard Supervision: from Needs Assessment to Customized Training

Most educational scholars agree that appropriate supervision of children is critical for positive youth development. Supervision is especially important during situations where children have a large degree of freedom and unstructured interaction, such as during recess. Despite the apparent importance of supervision of children at recess, there is little published research on the training of yard supervisors. The goal of the present study was to conduct a needs assessment and develop a customized training for yard supervisors at a public elementary school in an effort to help yard supervisors respond more effectively to student conflicts and promote a positive school climate. Needs assessment data used to inform the yard supervisor training were gathered through two methods: (a) playground observations of yard supervisor and student behavior and (b) yard supervisor interviews and student focus groups. Results of the needs assessment, and a description of the yard supervisor training developed from these findings, are presented, with particular emphasis placed on the implications of the study for practicing school psychologists.

The implementation of a pilot playground markings project in four Australian primary schools

Increasing childhood overweight and obesity rates need strategies that promote and engage children in more physical activity and school is one setting for this. This pilot project aimed to determine if coloured playground markings are an effective strategy, in the Australian context, to increase students' physical activity during school break times in primary schools. Four schools participated, two as intervention schools and two as control schools. A combination of data collection methods were used, including accelerometers on students, playground observations and a teacher survey. The accelerometer and observation data did not show an improvement in the physical activity levels of the intervention students compared to the control students. The teacher survey was positive in all aspects of the project implementation. Observations suggest that most students were active in large grass areas rather than around the playground markings. Based on our data, it is unclear whether playground markings are an effective intervention to increase physical activity in the school setting. The amount of playing space available appears to influence the use of the playground markings.

The Effect of Introducing Nonplay Items into a Primary School Playground in Ireland

Play is the context for development, growth, and learning, yet many schools have restricted or removed play equipment from playgrounds because of health and safety concerns. This study aimed to investigate whether there was any change in the playfulness of children in an Irish primary school playground when nonplay items were introduced. In a before and after study, 12 children from 2 schools were assessed using the Test of Playfulness. Structured interviews with class teachers and nonparticipant observations were also carried out. The Test of Playfulness results demonstrated that there was no overall statistical difference in playfulness. However, qualitative findings from playground observations and structured interviews suggested that the type and quality of play changed, becoming more fun, creative, inclusive, and imaginative.

A Community-Based Approach to Preventing Youth Violence: What Can We Learn From the Playground?

Aggression, bullying, and victimization represent tremendous public health concerns among youth. These behaviors occur frequently in unstructured settings, such as the playground. Direct observations of the playground permit examination of these peer processes and are readily accomplished using community-based participatory research (CBPR). To present alternative viewpoints regarding the use of playground observations to evaluate peer aggression, bullying, and victimization. We used a (1) child-specific observational coding system and (2) naturalistic observation of the playground to examine playground behaviors. Peer-child processes have differential associations with conduct disorder (CD) and depression symptoms. Group-based observations suggested a number of strengths and some areas that would be amenable to intervention. A CBPR framework is useful for identifying youth involved in bullying and victimization; providing immediate support, interventions, and problem-solving strategies; and predicting potential negative outcomes, which can inform violence prevention and intervention efforts.

Sex differences in the structure and stability of children's playground social networks and their overlap with friendship relations

Gender segregated peer networks during middle childhood have been highlighted as important for explaining later sex differences in behaviour, yet few studies have examined the structural composition of these networks and their implications. This short-term longitudinal study of 119 children (7-8 years) examined the size and internal structure of boys' and girls' social networks, their overlap with friendship relations, and their stability over time. Data collection at the start and end of the year involved systematic playground observations of pupils' play networks during team and non-team activities and measures of friendship from peer nomination interviews. Social networks were identified by aggregating play network data at each time point. Findings showed that the size of boy's play networks on the playground, but not their social networks, varied according to activity type. Social network cores consisted mainly of friends. Girl's social networks were more likely to be composed of friends and boys' networks contained friends and non-friends. Girls had more friends outside of the social network than boys. Stability of social network membership and internal network relations were higher for boys than girls. These patterns have implications for the nature of social experiences within these network contexts.

Solitary‐functional Play and Solitary‐pretend Play: Another Look at the Construct of Solitary‐active Behavior Using Playground Observations

AbstractAlthough the construct of solitary‐active behavior calls for the aggregation of solitary‐functional play and solitary‐pretend play, there is little empirical support for combining them into one construct. Furthermore, little work has been done in early childhood to examine these behaviors on the playground. The purpose of this study was to observe children's behavior on the playground to explore whether solitary‐functional and solitary‐pretend behaviors are related to one another and to other indices of social adjustment/maladjustment. Examining a sample of 361 preschoolers, results revealed that (1) solitary‐functional and solitary‐pretend play were not related, (2) solitary‐functional play was associated with solitary‐passive and reticent behaviors, as well as less social play, co‐operative rough and tumble play, sociable/friendliness, assertiveness, and lower peer acceptance, and (3) solitary‐pretend play was linked to lower peer acceptance and more social maladjustment, including venting, reactive aggression (but not proactive aggression), active exclusion, victimization, and being distractible.

The contribution of preschool playground factors in explaining children's physical activity during recess

BackgroundLow levels of physical activity are characteristic in preschoolers. To effectively promote physical activity, it is necessary to understand factors that influence young children's physical activity. The present study aimed to investigate how physical activity levels are influenced by environmental factors during recess in preschool.MethodsPreschool playground observations and pedometry during recess were carried out in 39 randomly selected preschools (415 boys and 368 girls; 5.3 ± 0.4 years old). In order to examine the contribution of playground variables to physical activity levels, taking adjustment for clustering of subjects within preschools into account, multilevel analyses were conducted.ResultsDuring recess boys took significantly more steps per minute than girls (65 ± 36 versus 54 ± 28 steps/min). In both genders higher step counts per minute were significantly associated with less children per m2 and with shorter recess times. Only in boys a hard playground surface was a borderline significant predictor for higher physical activity levels. In girls higher step counts were associated with the presence of less supervising teachers. Playground markings, access to toys, the number of playing or aiming equipment pieces and the presence of vegetation or height differences were not significant physical activity predictors in both genders.ConclusionIn preschool children physical activity during outdoor play is associated with modifiable playground factors. Further study is recommended to evaluate if the provision of more play space, the promotion of continued activity by supervisors and the modification of playground characteristics can increase physical activity levels in preschoolers.

Australian Primary School Playgrounds: Children’s Use of Playspaces and Equipment

Research is particularly scarce on the changes which are occurring in primary school playgrounds in Australia. This recent doctoral study looked at three primary school playgrounds and reported on the types of play children engage in at primary school. At the heart of this study was the researcher's belief that the right to play in the primary school playground is a fundamental right of all children attending a primary school, as well as a vital opportunity for learning life skills. This research has grown from a concern that Australian primary school playgrounds may be following the path of many other first world countries, becoming less and less child friendly and increasingly restricting children's play opportunities as described by Armitage (2001), Evans (2003), Neto (2005), and many others. This study was prompted by the researcher's desire to better understand the types of play children were engaging in, in the playgrounds of three Melbourne primary schools, built during different periods, in different locations and in different socio-economic contexts. Each playground was viewed from the perspectives of the principal, teachers and children and, using a schedule of play categories developed in a pilot study, playground observations were conducted. This resulted in a clear picture of the types of play children were engaging in, how they were using playspaces and equipment, how teachers were supervising the playground and how they were interacting with the children during playground supervision. This paper specifically explores children's use of playspaces and equipment with regard to the types of play they are engaging in, the age group and gender of players.

Who is watching the watchers? The challenge of observing peer interactions on elementary school playgrounds

AbstractThis chapter discusses a multisite program evaluation in elementary schools that incorporated playground observations to document student behavior. A number of challenges are discussed, some of which were consistent with observer reactivity effects long documented in the literature, while others we believe were unique to this particular setting and provide a cautionary tale for those collecting school‐based observation data.

Maternal Appraisal Styles, Family Risk Status and Anger Biases of Children

The present study investigated the relationship between maternal appraisal styles, family risk status, and anger biases in children. Participants included 90 mothers and their children between 3-6 years of age. Eighty families were followed up 1 year later. Maternal appraisal styles were assessed via a naturalistic story-reading method, and Time 1 and Time 2 emotion biases included teacher ratings of anger and aggression, peer ratings of anger, as well as classroom and playground observations of anger. While discussing ambiguous stories with their children, mothers with higher scores on the family risk index utilized more hostile appraisals and fewer prosocial appraisals in their explanations. A higher proportion of hostile-to-prosocial appraisals was also related to higher-risk family status. Prosocial appraisals by mothers were inversely correlated with children's anger biases at school. When the appraisal balance in mothers' talk favored hostile appraisals, children tended to show higher levels of anger biases evidenced at school. Finally, a hostile balance of maternal appraisals was found to predict change in children's anger biases in the school with different effects in high- and low-risk families.

Concurrent and longitudinal relations between children's playground behavior and social preference, victimization, and bullying.

Prior research with contrived play groups suggests that how children interact with one another can influence their social relationships, but few studies have been carried out to determine if this is the case in naturalistic settings. This study examined the concurrent and longitudinal links between four observational measures of 8- to 9-year-old children's (N = 89) playground behaviors/peer contacts (Alone, Conversation, Group Size, and Network) and three sociometric measures of their peer relationships (Social Preference, Bully, and Victim). The latter were assessed at 2 points within a school year, the first corresponding with the playground observations and the second 5 months later. Several of the concurrent correlations were found to be significant. For boys, Group Size was positively correlated with Bully Score and Social Preference Score, but negatively correlated with Victim Score; and time Alone was positively correlated with Victim Score. For girls, time Alone was positively correlated with Victim Score; Network was negatively correlated with Bully Score but positively correlated with Social Preference Score; and Group Size was positively correlated with Social Preference Score. The longitudinal analyses indicated that for boys, elevated levels of time Alone and, separately, Conversation, predicted the highest increases in Victim Score. For girls, low levels of time Alone predicted the sharpest increases in Social Preference Score. There was also some marginally significant evidence, p < .06, that among girls, high levels of time Alone predicted the greatest increases in Bully Score, and high levels of Conversation predicted the greatest increases in Social Preference Score. The theoretical and practical importance of these links between children's nonaggressive playground behaviors and their emerging peer relationships are discussed.

Measures of effectiveness in a short-term Interpersonal Cognitive Problem Solving programme

The effects of a classroom-based, short-term Interpersonal Cognitive Problem-Solving programme for 24 7- and 8-year-old children were assessed immediately after a 4-week intervention programme and again after a 4-week follow-up period. A previous study (Erwin & Ruane, Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 7, 305–310, 1993) implementing such a short-term programme relied on sociometric testing to measure the social effectiveness of the training and failed to find any changes in social status. The present study incorporated playground observations and found behavioural improvements immediately after training and after the follow-up period for the experimental group. However, confirming the previous study, no significant differences in sociometric status were found. The results highlight the limitations of sociometry as a measure of the effectiveness of a programme of training in Interpersonal Cognitive Problem-solving.

Examining the gender gap in nutrition: An example from rural Mexico

Gender differences in nutrient and food intake were examined in Mexican Nutrition CRSP (Collaborative Research Support Program) infants ( N = 75), preschoolers ( N = 80), and school children ( N = 91). No significant gender differences in dietary quality or quantity were seen for infants and preschoolers. For school children, the contribution of various foods to total energy intake (dietary quality) was also quite similar for girls and boys. Equity in dietary quality remained even under conditions of economic and demographic stress. Nevertheless, school girls consumed significantly less energy per day than boys (∼ 300 kcal/d or 1.3 mJ/d), and less of all micronutrients examined. Gender differences in estimated basal metabolic rates of school children were slight (∼ 20 kcal/d), and body composition and size were similar. When energy intakes were expressed as a percent of estimated requirement (calculated from age, sex and weight using WHO/FAO/UNU equations), intakes were adequate and not significantly different between girls ( x ̄ = 111% ) and boys ( x ̄ = 113% ). Playground observations showed girls to be less active than boys, which may reflect both cultural and biological influences. Apparently due to this lower activity, school girls consumed less energy, and may have been at much higher risk than boys of micronutrient deficiency. The lower food intakes of girls did not appear to be due to purposeful dietary discrimination, but rather to culturally patterned sex roles involving lower activity.

PeaceBuilders: A Theoretically Driven, School-based Model for Early Violence Prevention

PeaceBuilders is a schoolwide violence-prevention program for elementary schools (K-5). A coalition of the Pima County Community Services Department, University of Arizona, and Heartsprings, Inc., (a Tucson-based company) are conducting a formal evaluation. Children who grow up to commit acts of violence show cognitive, social, and imitative differences from their peers. These characteristics can be ameliorated, most successfully through interventions that begin at an early age and involve multiple segments of the child's social experiences and interactions. PeaceBuilders activities are built into the school environment and the daily interactions among students, teachers, and administrative staff, all of whom are taught a common language and provided models of positive behavior, environmental cues to signal such behavior, opportunities to rehearse positive behavior, and rewards for practicing it. Four schools, one from each of four matched pairs, were randomly assigned to begin PeaceBuilders in Year 1. The remaining four schools begin in Year 2. Outcome assessments include student self-reports, standardized teacher reports, playground observations, and school and law enforcement records. Process assessments include school observations and surveys of teacher practices and satisfaction. Surveys were completed by 2,736 children. The sample is about 55% Hispanic, 26% Anglo, 14% Native American, and 4% African American. Among children in grades 3-5, during the past week 15% had been sent to the office for disciplinary problems, 13% tried to start a fight 27% hit someone, and 12% reported being threatened with a gun or knife. Violent behaviors and experiences are common among the studied children. A valid evaluation is underway of PeaceBuilders.