Plasmodium Sp Research Articles

Risk Factors Affecting The Incident of Malaria in The Working Area of The Malaimsimsa Public Health Center Sorong City

Background: Malaria is an infectious disease caused by Plasmodium sp, a single-celled living creature that belongs to the group of the genus Protozoa which is parasitic. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of environmental factors and behavioral factors on the incidence of malaria in the working area of the Malaimsimsa Community Health Center, Sorong City.Methods: This research is an observational study using a case-control study . The case group in this study included people with malaria as indicated by positive malaria blood test results. Examination of malaria is carried out by means of microscopic examination by making thick and thin blood preparations, stained using Giemsa stain, then identified using a microscope. The control group includes people who are not sick with negative blood test results.Result: The results of this study indicate that all malaria infections that occur are caused by infection with the type of Plasmodium vivax. The risk factors that influence the incidence of malaria are behavioral factors, namely the use of body armor and the use of insect repellent. While the risk factors that do not affect the incidence of malaria are the presence of puddles, temperature and use of mosquito nets.Conclusion : From the results of this study it can be concluded that the factors of stagnant water, temperature and use of mosquito nets are not related to the incidence of malaria, on the contrary the use of body armor and the use of insect repellent have a relationship with the incidence of malaria.

Formulation of Herbal Mosquito Repellent From Essential Oil Extracted Form Citrus Sinensis (Orange)

One of the infectious diseases that still poses a health risk to the society is malaria. Malaria is spread by insects called Anopheles sp. brought on by parasitic plasmodium sp. Owing to their high citric acid concentration, oranges have a sour flavor and a crisp scent. Orange peel essential oils are generally suitable for use as deodorizers with anti-mosquito spray. Due to their dislike of perfumes, mosquitoes can be sent away by orange peels. Oil-soluble (lipophilic) gologan organic molecules called terpenes and terpenoids are found in essential oils. With changes in active components infusion of orange peel F1 (20%), F2 (40%), this study intends to determine the usage of citrus peel waste into mosquito repellent spray compositions as an alternative to malaria prophylaxis

New insight into avian malaria vectors in New Zealand

BackgroundMosquitoes (Culicidae) are vectors for most malaria parasites of the Plasmodium species and are required for Plasmodium spp. to complete their life cycle. Despite having 16 species of mosquitoes and the detection of many Plasmodium species in birds, little is known about the role of different mosquito species in the avian malaria life cycle in New Zealand.MethodsIn this study, we used nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and real-time PCR to determine Plasmodium spp. prevalence and diversity of mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences in wild-caught mosquitoes sampled across ten sites on the North Island of New Zealand during 2012–2014. The mosquitoes were pooled by species and location collected, and the thorax and abdomens were examined separately for Plasmodium spp. DNA. Akaike information criterion (AIC) modeling was used to test whether location, year of sampling, and mosquito species were significant predictors of minimum infection rates (MIR).ResultsWe collected 788 unengorged mosquitoes of six species, both native and introduced. The most frequently caught mosquito species were the introduced Aedes notoscriptus and the native Culex pervigilans. Plasmodium sp DNA was detected in 37% of matched thorax and abdomen pools. When considered separately, 33% of abdomen and 23% of thorax pools tested positive by nested PCR. The MIR of the positive thorax pools from introduced mosquito species was 1.79% for Ae. notoscriptus and 0% for Cx. quinquefasciatus, while the MIR for the positive thorax pools of native mosquito species was 4.9% for Cx. pervigilans and 0% for Opifex fuscus. For the overall MIR, site and mosquito species were significant predictors of Plasmodium overall MIR. Aedes notoscriptus and Cx. pervigilans were positive for malaria DNA in the thorax samples, indicating that they may play a role as avian malaria vectors. Four different Plasmodium lineages (SYAT05, LINN1, GRW6, and a new lineage of P (Haemamoeba) sp. AENOT11) were identified in the pooled samples.ConclusionsThis is the first detection of avian Plasmodium DNA extracted from thoraxes of native Culex and introduced Aedes mosquito species in New Zealand and therefore the first study providing an indication of potential vectors in this country.Graphical

Confirmatory Assay for Laboratory Diagnosis of Malaria Using Molecular Approach.

Prompt malarial treatment and surveillance is crucial for accurate diagnosis of Plasmodium Sp. Gold standard microscopic examination has been widely applied for diagnosis of malaria in most part of the endemic areas. But in case of submicroscopic and asymptomatic microscopic diagnosis is questioned. The study aims to develop a simple, cost effective & robust nucleic acid amplification technique for the detection of malaria parasite. Study population included 50 clinically diagnosed positive malaria patient samples from various pathological laboratories. Microscopy by preparing thick film was carried out of every sample for primary screening in the available facility of Surat Raktadan Kendra & Research Centre- Blood Bank. The conventional PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) was applied for genus-specific amplification targeting the 18S rRNA gene of Plasmodium. Agarose gel electrophoresis was used to separate and analyze the amplified PCR product using 2% Agarose gel. The study shows that nested PCR not only detected all microscopic positive samples, but also detected submicroscopic infections that were missed or misread by microscopy. Hence, the sensitivity of molecular based detection technique is proved to be more compared to microscopic examination.

Antimalarial Activity of Mangrove Plants and Possible Mechanisms of Action: A Scoping Review

Malaria is one of life threatening-infectious diseases with high mortality rate in African regions. Malaria is also one of public health problem in most of Southeast Asia (SEA) regions. This disease is caused by a Apicomplexan parasite; Plasmodium sp., which can be transmitted from humans to humans via Anopheles sp. To date, the need of a new antimalarial drug is still high, due to the rapid increase of drug resistance. Natural-derived drug candidates are still being used by researchers to develop new antimalarials. One of the natural resources which could potentially be a source of antimalarial agents are mangrove plants. Traditionally, mangrove plants have been employed as antibacterial, antioxidant, anticancer, and antidiabetic. Therefore, we conducted a scoping review to identify, evaluate and summarize findings of newly found antimalarial drug activity from mangrove plants and elaborate the possible mechanism of actions in killing the parasites. From several databases, we found six mangrove species which have been suggested as potential antimalarial sources. Various phytochemical compounds in extracts made from those plants were revealed to exert antimalarial activity. These include alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, phenols, terpenoids, saponins, coumarins, triterpenes, glycosides, and anthraquinones which were indicated to have antimalarial activity against Plasmodium. From eight studies investigating mangrove plant extracts, no toxic effects were shown. Therefore, considering the available evidences, we suggested that mangrove plants can be used as a source for the discovery of antimalarial compounds with promising activities against Plasmodium sp. However, deeper understanding on the exact mechanisms of their actions still requires further elucidation.
 
 Keywords: Antimalaria, Anthraquinone, Mangrove, Plasmodium sp., Protozoa

Molecular mimicry between Plasmodium sp and Guillain-Barre syndrome antigens

Analyze the molecular mimicry between Plasmodium spp. and autoantigens associated with GBS, identifying possible antigenic epitopes. PSI-Blast, Praline, Emboss, Protein Data Bank, Swiss Model Server, AlphaFold 2, Ellipro and PyMol 2.3 were used to search for homologies, perform alignments, obtain protein structures, and predict epitopes. 17 autoantigens and seven immunological targets of the peripheral nervous system were included, identifying 72 possible epitopes associated with GBS. From the proteome of Plasmodium spp. (298 proteins), only two showed similarities close to 30% with TRIM21 and BACE1, generating seven possible epitopes. No significant homologies were observed between the proteome of GBS and Plasmodium spp. The exploration of other mechanisms such as immune-mediated capillary damage, Epitope Spreading or Bystander Activation is suggested to explain the mentioned association. These findings underscore the need to clarify the etiology of autoimmune diseases and the role of pathogens. The need for experimental studies to validate these results is emphasized.

Comparative Study of Cinchona Cinnamon Bark

Cinchona which belongs to family Rubiaceae, got its importance from the centuries because of its antimalarial activity. Alkaloids present in this herb, quinine, chichonine, quinidine and cinchonidine are the main, but percentage may vary in species to species. since the early 17 century, the sealkaloid are frequently used in Indian ayurvedic, siddha and traditional folk medicine to treating fever and still now in modern medicine cinchona alkaloids are used for the treatment of malaria as well as for other diseases and became the well-known drug after the treatment of malaria caused by Plasmodium Sp. Literature study revealed that along with the antimalarial activity the cinchona alkaloids has other potentially like anti-obesity, anticancer, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory , antimicrobial activity. Many herbal remedies have been employed in various medical systems for the treatment and management of different disease.Cinnamon is ever green tree of tropical area,a member of family Lauraceae, has been used in day to day routine as spice .Literature review on cinnamon releved that in mainly contain essential oil and important compounds like cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, cinnamic acid and cinnamon. It has got good anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, memory enhancer and many other Activities

Standardization of DNA extraction from paraffinized spleen samples: molecular diagnosis of human malaria

BackgroundPlasmodium vivax is the main species responsible for human malaria in Brazil, and one of its manifestations is splenic malaria, though there are still challenges in its diagnosis. The present study aimed to standardize Plasmodium sp. DNA extraction from histological slices of spleen and diagnosis using real-time qPCR.MethodsThis study performed a microtomy of a paraffin-embedded spleen as a positive control for P. vivax from a patient who had been previously diagnosed with the parasite. The sample was deparaffinized with xylol and ethanol, then DNA extraction was performed with two commercial kits. qPCR was carried out with the Taqman system for detection of Plasmodium sp. and was made species-specific using PvmtCOX1 gene. From 2015 to 2019, 200 spleen samples were obtained from trauma patients subjected to splenectomy in Manaus, Amazonas. All the samples were tested for cell-free human DNA (cfDNA).ResultsThe deparaffinization and the Plasmodium vivax DNA extraction method was successfully standardized, and the control sample was positive for P. vivax. Of the 200 samples, all qPCRs were negative, but they were positive for human PCR.ConclusionParaffinization is practical and efficient for the preservation of samples, but the formation of bonds between proteins and DNA makes extraction difficult. Despite this, in this study, it was possible to standardize a method of DNA extraction for detecting P. vivax.

Avian Plasmodium spp. and Haemoproteus spp. parasites in mosquitoes in Germany

BackgroundAlthough haemosporidian parasites may cause considerable health and economic problems in aviaries, there is limited understanding of the vectors transmitting them. Mosquito-borne Plasmodium species are responsible for the deaths of numerous exotic (= immunologically naïve) birds in zoos every year, while native birds are adapted to the parasites and largely protected by an effective immune response.MethodsMosquitoes were collected in bird/animal parks, wetlands and private gardens in various regions of Germany from 2020 to 2022. Females were pooled with up to 10 specimens according to taxon, location and date. Extracted DNA was screened for avian Haemosporida-specific mitochondrial rDNA using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Positive samples were amplified by a Plasmodium/Haemoproteus-specific nested PCR targeting the partial cytochrome b gene, followed by sequencing of the PCR product for species identification. Sequences were checked against GenBank and MalAvi databases.ResultsPCR of 2633 pools with 8834 female mosquitoes signalled infection with Plasmodium in 46 pools and with Haemoproteus in one pool. Further amplification and sequencing demonstrated the occurrence of Haemoproteus majoris lineage PARUS1 (n = 1) as well as several Plasmodium species and lineages, including Plasmodium relictum SGS1 (n = 16) and GRW11 (n = 1), P. matutinum LINN1 (n = 13), P. vaughani SYAT05 (n = 10), P. circumflexum TURDUS01 (n = 3), P. cathemerium PADOM02 (n = 1) and Plasmodium sp. SYBOR02 (n = 1) and PLOPRI01 (n = 1). The infections were detected in Culex pipiens sensu lato (n = 40), Culiseta morsitans/fumipennis (n = 6) and Aedes cinereus/geminus (n = 1).ConclusionsAlthough the overall Plasmodium minimum infection rate (5.2) appears to be low, the results demonstrated not only the ongoing circulation of Plasmodium parasites in the German mosquito population, but also the occurrence of eight distinct Plasmodium lineages, with three of them (PADOM02, SYBOR02, PLOPRI01) being detected in Germany for the first time. This study highlights the importance of conducting mosquito-borne pathogen surveillance studies simultaneously targeting vectors and vertebrate hosts, as certain species may be detected more readily in their vectors than in their vertebrate hosts, and vice versa.Graphical

Malaria situation in Lampung Pesawaran during the COVID-19 pandemic

Background : At the time of COVID-19 was determined as a pandemic there are still many infectious diseases that have not been eliminated such as HIV / AIDS, tuberculosis, including malaria. Malaria is an infectious disease that existed long before corona virus or COVID-19 appeared in the world. malaria itself is a parasitic infectious disease plasmodium sp transmitted through the bite of a female Anophelese sp mosquito. The current incidence of malaria cases coincides with the COVID-19 pandemic, which could potentially increase or decrease the incidence of malaria cases.Purpose: To find out the comparison of malaria cases in endemic areas before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in The Hanura Health Center of Lampung Pesawaran Regency 2019-2020.. Method: Comparative research with purposive sampling research techniques with the population of all malaria patients in Puskesmas Hanura Pesawaran Lampung Regency from September 2019 to August 2020. Analyze data using univariate and bivariate..Results : The most cases of malaria based on the age before the COVID-19 pandemic at the age of >15 years amounted to 121 patients (72,9%) and during the COVID-19 pandemic the most at the age of >15 years amounted to 25 patients (61,0%). The most cases of malaria by gender before the COVID-19 pandemic were in 102 male patients (61,4%) and based on gender during the COVID-19 pandemic the most was in men as many as 21 patients (51,2%) . Malaria cases before the COVID-19 pandemic were highest in October 2019 at 55 patients (33,1%) and during the COVID-19 pandemic the highest in March 2020 was 14 patients (34,1%).Conclusion: There is a significant comparison in malaria cases before and during the COVID-19 pandemic with a P value of 0.033.

The potential for zoonotic malaria transmission in five areas of Indonesia inhabited by non-human primates

BackgroundIndonesia is home to many species of non-human primates (NHPs). Deforestation, which is still ongoing in Indonesia, has substantially reduced the habitat of NHPs in the republic. This has led to an intensification of interactions between NHPs and humans, which opens up the possibility of pathogen spillover. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of malarial parasite infections in NHPs in five provinces of Indonesia in 2022. Species of the genus Anopheles that can potentially transmit malarial pathogens to humans were also investigated.MethodsAn epidemiological survey was conducted by capturing NHPs in traps installed in several localities in the five provinces, including in the surroundings of a wildlife sanctuary. Blood samples were drawn aseptically after the NHPs had been anesthetized; the animals were released after examination. Blood smears were prepared on glass slides, and dried blood spot tests on filter paper. Infections with Plasmodium spp. were determined morphologically from the blood smears, which were stained with Giemsa solution, and molecularly through polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequencing using rplU oligonucleotides. The NHPs were identified to species level by using the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene and the internal transcribed spacer 2 gene as barcoding DNA markers. Mosquito surveillance included the collection of larvae from breeding sites and that of adults through the human landing catch (HLC) method together with light traps.ResultsAnalysis of the DNA extracted from the dried blood spot tests of the 110 captured NHPs revealed that 50% were positive for Plasmodium, namely Plasmodium cynomolgi, Plasmodium coatneyi, Plasmodium inui, Plasmodium knowlesi and Plasmodium sp. Prevalence determined by microscopic examination of the blood smears was 42%. Species of the primate genus Macaca and family Hylobatidae were identified by molecular analysis. The most common mosquito breeding sites were ditches, puddles and natural ponds. Some of the Anopheles letifer captured through HLC carried sporozoites of malaria parasites that can cause the disease in primates.ConclusionsThe prevalence of malaria in the NHPs was high. Anopheles letifer, a potential vector of zoonotic malaria, was identified following its collection in Central Kalimantan by the HLC method. In sum, the potential for the transmission of zoonotic malaria in several regions of Indonesia is immense.Graphical

Bacterial Microbiota from Lab-Reared and Field-Captured Anopheles darlingi Midgut and Salivary Gland.

Anopheles darlingi is a major malaria vector in the Amazon region and, like other vectors, harbors a community of microorganisms with which it shares a network of interactions. Here, we describe the diversity and bacterial composition from the midguts and salivary glands of lab-reared and field-captured An. darlingi using metagenome sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. The libraries were built using the amplification of the region V3-V4 16S rRNA gene. The bacterial community from the salivary glands was more diverse and richer than the community from the midguts. However, the salivary glands and midguts only showed dissimilarities in beta diversity between lab-reared mosquitoes. Despite that, intra-variability was observed in the samples. Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas were dominant in the tissues of lab-reared mosquitoes. Sequences of Wolbachia and Asaia were both found in the tissue of lab-reared mosquitoes; however, only Asaia was found in field-captured An. darlingi, but in low abundance. This is the first report on the characterization of microbiota composition from the salivary glands of An. darlingi from lab-reared and field-captured individuals. This study can provide invaluable insights for future investigations regarding mosquito development and interaction between mosquito microbiota and Plasmodium sp.

UJI AKTIVITAS BUAH MAHKOTA DEWA (PHALERIA MACROCARPA) SEBAGAI ANTIMALARIA PADA MENCIT YANG DIINFEKSI PLASMODIUM BERGHEI

Malaria is a parasitic infection caused by Plasmodium sp. Malaria’s medication and prevention are known, but there is a problem of increasing Plasmodium resistance to antimalarial drugs such as drugs from the chloroquine class, to overcome this problem traditional medicine is chosen because it is safer and cheaper. God’s crown (Phaleria macrocarpa) is one of the plants commonly used for traditional medicine which contains several active substances, namely saponins, polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, sterols, alkaloids and terpenoids which have potential as antimalarials which can be proven by observing the degree of parasitemia in the mice blood. This study was conducted in vivo using the Randomized Post Test Only Controlled Group method using 24 samples of mice which were divided into 4 groups. The negative control group was only 0.2 ml of RPMI as a treatment control and the treatment group was treated with God’s crown extract at doses of 1, 10, and 100 mg/kgBW, then the degree of parasitemia was examined in each mouse. The data analysis technique used is One Way ANOVA and Post Hoc test. The results obtained mean the degree of parasitemia in the control group, doses of 1 mg/kgBW, 10 mg/kgBW and 100 mg/kgBW respectively 41.70; 37.96; 31.55; and 37.0. The results based on the analysis using One Way ANOVA posttest, it was found that there were significant differences between the control group and treatment groups 1,2, and 3 with p value of 0.000 (p < 0.05). The results showed that the extract of the fruit of the God’s crown (Phaleria macrocarpa) could inhibit the growth of Plasmodium berghei, the best dose was found at a dose of 10 mg/kgBW.

Proteomic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii ME49 derived strains resistant to the artemisinin derivatives artemiside and artemisone implies potential mode of action independent of ROS formation

The sesquiterpene lactone artemisinin and its amino-artemisinin derivatives artemiside (GC008) and artemisone (GC003) are potent antimalarials. The mode of action of artemisinins against Plasmodium sp is popularly ascribed to 'activation' of the peroxide group by heme-Fe(II) or labile Fe(II) to generate C-radicals that alkylate parasite proteins. An alternative postulate is that artemisinins elicit formation of reactive oxygen species by interfering with flavin disulfide reductases resposible for maintaining intraparasitic redox homeostasis. However, in contradistinction to the heme-activation mechanism, the amino-artemisinins are effective in vitro against non-heme-degrading apicomplexan parasites including T. gondii, with IC 50 values of 50–70 nM, and induce distinct ultrastructural alterations. However, T. gondii strains readily adapted to increased concentrations (2.5 μM) of these two compounds within few days. Thus, T. gondii strains that were resistant against artemisone and artemiside were generated by treating the T. gondii reference strain ME49 with stepwise increasing amounts of these compounds, yielding the artemisone resistant strain GC003R and the artemiside resistant strain GC008R. Differential analyses of the proteomes of these resistant strains compared to the wildtype ME49 revealed that 215 proteins were significantly downregulated in artemisone resistant tachyzoites and only 8 proteins in artemiside resistant tachyzoites as compared to their wildtype. Two proteins, namely a hypothetical protein encoded by ORF TGME49_236950, and the rhoptry neck protein RON2 encoded by ORF TGME49_300100 were downregulated in both resistant strains. Interestingly, eight proteins involved in ROS scavenging including catalase and superoxide dismutase were amongst the differentially downregulated proteins in the artemisone-resistant strain. In parallel, ROS formation was significantly enhanced in isolated tachyzoites from the artemisone resistant strain and – to a lesser extent – in tachyzoites from the artemiside resistant strain as compared to wildtype tachyzoites. These findings suggest that amino-artemisinin derivatives display a mechanism of action in T. gondii distinct from Plasmodium.

Potential of nanoformulations in malaria treatment.

Malaria is caused by the protozoan Plasmodium sp and affects millions of people worldwide. Its clinical form ranges from asymptomatic to potentially fatal and severe. Current treatments include single drugs such as chloroquine, lumefantrine, primaquine, or in combination with artemisinin or its derivatives. Resistance to antimalarial drugs has increased; therefore, there is an urgent need to diversify therapeutic approaches. The disease cycle is influenced by biological, social, and anthropological factors. This longevity and complexity contributes to the records of drug resistance, where further studies and proposals for new therapeutic formulations are needed for successful treatment of malaria. Nanotechnology is promising for drug development. Preclinical formulations with antimalarial agents have shown positive results, but only a few have progressed to clinical phase. Therefore, studies focusing on the development and evaluation of antimalarial formulations should be encouraged because of their enormous therapeutic potential.

Global Therapeutic Intervention on Malaria

Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease caused by distinct species of a single-celled parasite called Plasmodium sp. However, an infected adult female Anopheles sp. mosquito that feeds on blood is responsible for the transmission of malaria. In the year 2020, approximately 241 million malaria cases and 627 thousand malaria deaths were recorded globally. In most tropical and subtropical regions of the world, malaria is one of the leading causes of death. Its transmission cuts across 86 countries with African continent recording approximately 95% deaths in 2020. Africa is mostly affected due to its weather conditions that support the easy spread of Plasmodium falciparum. Over time, relevant interventions have been made by researchers in the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of malaria. Nevertheless, there are still challenges to its treatment and management globally. This review article is focused on the therapeutic intervention on malaria globally. Thus, published primary literatures reporting several relevant and new therapeutic interventions in malaria, as globally attained in the past years were collated and vital information critically reviewed. It is important to note that, the risk of contracting malaria is dependent on the region visited, length of stay, immunity, exposure and compliance with prophylaxis. Hence, to select treatment best suitable as a first-line therapy, combination antimalarial therapy, which consists of two or more antimalarial agents with different mechanisms of action was introduced and has been widely accepted and endorsed to prevent the development of drug resistance. Yet, immunization still remains the best measure for the eradication of malaria.

Antimalarial activities of plants with medicinal potential: a systematic review of the literature

Objective: This is a qualitative study, whose objective was to investigate the scientific literature on plant species potentially active against Plasmodium sp. Method: This is a systematic literature review, which aimed to analyze the most recent articles published between the years 2005-2020 in the languages: English and Portuguese. The studies were chosen in an integrative way from the following databases: PubMed (National Library of Medicine), LILACS (Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature), Science Direct (Explore, scientific and medical) and SciELO (Scientific Electronic Library Online). Results and discussion: 115 species distributed in 50 botanical families were found in antiplasmodial inhibition studies, of which 66 different types of extracts showed action in eliminating these parasites, while 59 of these extracts were inactive. Of this total number, the most studied species belong to the Asteraceae and Fabaceae families. In addition, another 141 botanical species were cited in ethnobotanical surveys in different regions of the world. Aponynaceae and Lamiaceae were the most representative plant families among the studies focused on this topic. The data also allowed us to understand how popular knowledge can help to establish scientific discoveries about plants with antimalarial potential. In addition, environmental conditions were identified as determining factors for the production of chemical constituents in these plants. Conclusion: Efforts to identify plants with active potential in combating the parasite have increased significantly in recent years; however, it is important to emphasize that the preservation of biodiversity needs to be an important aspect of ethnobotanical research in order to guarantee the sustainable use of available resources.

Evaluating recurrent episodes of malaria incidence in Timika, Indonesia, through a Markovian multiple-state model.

BackgroundThe high prevalence of malaria in endemic areas generally stems from recurrence events, characterized by the appearance of malaria symptoms at the time of examination; nearly every resident is at risk of experiencing such a recurrence. The verified presence of Plasmodium sp is referred to as the Confirmed state, while the condition without confirmed P. falciparum is called the Undetected Parasitaemia state. After malaria treatment, a person can be in Aparasitaemic state or return to an Undetected Parasitaemia or Confirmed state due to non-adherence in complying with malaria therapy. In this study, we evaluate the characteristics of malaria recurrence in Timika, Indonesia, using the Markovian multiple-state model. In addition, we also simulate the probability of malaria recurrence after the implementation of several control strategies, including prevention strategies using insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS).ObjectiveThis study aims to identify the transition probabilities of malaria recurrence with and without control strategies.MethodsWe use data from the medical records of malaria patients from the Naena Muktipura sub-health center in Timika, Papua, Indonesia, from March 2020 to March 2021. The data were grouped into two age categories: those under or over 24 years. The incidence of malaria in this area was modeled using a Markovian multiple-state model, dividing the incidence data based on the character of the patient's condition (Undetected Parasitaemia, Confirmed, or Aparasitaemic states) in order to obtain the patient's transition probabilities in each state. Furthermore, we simulate the recurrence probability given specific control strategies.ResultsThere were 964 visits to the sub-health center at Naena Muktipura in which symptoms of malaria were reported. Specifically, the number of the malaria incidences in the groups under and over age 24 were 456 and 508, respectively. The modeling results indicate that the probability of recurrence in the over-24 age group is generally higher than that in the under-24 age group. However, the probability of this recurrence decreases over time. Furthermore, providing a control strategy can reduce the probability of recurrence and increase the probability of recovery for these patients.ConclusionIn endemic areas, adherence to treatment and preventive measures can accelerate the healing process and reduce the probability of malaria recurrence. With proper treatment management, the use of ITNs and the application of IRS, the incidence of malaria can be reduced and recovery can be accelerated.

Plasmodial Prevalence with Respect to Gender in 6 Villages Around Balombo Town, Benguela Province, Angola, before Malaria Vector Control Implementation

Background: The different susceptibility of gender to infectious diseases is still a matter of concern and several studies were devoted to these issues; for malaria, recent studies reported a comparable “Force of Infection” in both gender while women could have a faster elimination of parasite than men.
 Study Area and duration Period of the Research: The study was done in villages around Balombo town, Benguela Municipality, Angola and initially scheduled for 5 years since year 2007 with 2 years before vector control implementation and 3 years after.
 Objectives of the research. The village scale malaria vector control program was planned and implemented to compare 4 methods of vector control with comprehensive entomological and parasitological evaluation, focusing on symptomless randomly selected patients, and noticing age and gender during each field survey for further analysis.
 Study Design: To check an eventual gender difference, we decided to analyze the parasitological data gained during the 56 cross sectional surveys (CSS) done during 2 consecutive years in the 6 villages used as “control” i.e. before implementation of vector control operations (VCO) considering the gender of symptomless patients (≤15 years old) surveyed. We considered 2 indicators: Plasmodial Prevalence (PP) and Parasite Load (PL).
 Main Results: 6727 thick blood smears (TBS) were prepared during these 56 CSS, and microscopically examined; the sex ratio of this total sample was well balanced with 3406 TBS (=50.6%) from men (“M”) and 3321 TBS (49.4%) from women (W”). The overall Plasmodial prevalence (all Plasmodium sp gathered because P. falciparum infections, as already noticed, are largely preponderant) were similar 41.02% for M and 40.1% for W.
 The overall plasmodial prevalence significantly decreased from Year 2007 to Year 2008: respectively 47.8% (n= 2686) and 35.7% (n= 4041); but the plasmodial prevalence were similar each year between gender: in year 2007: PP= 48.9% (n=1338) for M and 46.7% (n= 1348) for W and in year 2008: 35.9% (n=2068) for Men and 35.6% (n=1973) for Women.
 In Year 2007 the PP of Men and Women were similar in each village; in Year 2008 the PP were similar in 5 villages, but in Libata PP was significantly higher in Men than in Women.
 The trends of change from year to year appeared similar for gender excepted in Capango where the PP remained similar in W and significantly decreased for M.
 In term of Parasite Load the comparison of median of parasitaemia with the non-parametric Mann-Whitney test showed similar distribution between gender each year in each village and their evolution from year to year appeared also similar in each gender excepted for Men in Libata.
 Conclusion: These possibilities of changes of plasmodial infections according to gender with time and villages must be taken into consideration when planning, implementing and analyzing parasitological data of symptomless carriers before, and after, a vector control program which must be implemented on a long term basis. They show that an “only one” CSS could lead to wrong information and conclusion of malaria and gender and the recommendation to carry on longitudinal regular field studies for relevant conclusion on malaria infections among communities.
 The next step will be to analyze the plasmodial infection in both gender after vector control implementation.

Fasting blood glucose in a Ghanaian adult is causally affected by malaria parasite load: a mechanistic case study using convergent cross mapping

BackgroundAdults with diabetes mellitus (DM) in malaria-endemic areas might be more susceptible to Plasmodium infection than healthy individuals. Herein, the study was aimed at verifying the hypothesis that increased fasting blood glucose (FBG) promotes parasite growth as reflected by increased parasite density.MethodsSeven adults without DM were recruited in rural Ghana to determine the relationships between FBG and malaria parasite load. Socio-economic data were recorded in questionnaire-based interviews. Over a period of 6 weeks, FBG and Plasmodium sp. Infection were measured in peripheral blood samples photometrically and by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-assays, respectively. Daily physical activity and weather data were documented via smartphone recording. For the complex natural systems of homeostatic glucose control and Plasmodium sp. life cycle, empirical dynamic modelling was applied.ResultsAt baseline, four men and three women (median age, 33 years; interquartile range, 30–48) showed a median FBG of 5.5 (5.1–6.0 mmol/L); one participant had an asymptomatic Plasmodium sp. infection (parasite density: 240/µL). In this participant, convergent cross mapping (CCM) for 34 consecutive days, showed that FBG was causally affected by parasite density (p < 0.02), while the reciprocal relationship was not discernible (p > 0.05). Additionally, daily ambient temperature affected parasite density (p < 0.01).ConclusionIn this study population living in a malaria-endemic area, time series analyses were successfully piloted for the relationships between FBG and Plasmodium sp. density. Longer observation periods and larger samples are required to confirm these findings and determine the direction of causality.