Plantation Scheme Research Articles

The history of Fagus sylvatica at its northern limit in Vendsyssel, Denmark

Pollen, plant macrofossils and charcoal analyses were used to study tree diversity, fire history and forest disturbance over the past c. 3500 years at three forest remnant sites in Vendsyssel, northern Denmark. All locations had a more diverse tree composition in the past including abundant Alnus, Betula, Corylus, Pinus, Quercus, Salix, Tilia and Ulmus. The changes in tree diversity through time can be attributed to a combination of factors including climate change, burning linked to shifting cultivation, grazing and felling. The balance between arboreal and non-arboreal pollen was already being influenced by human activities in the late Bronze Age c. 3000 years ago. The high pollen abundance values recorded for Tilia pre-2000 years ago are exceptional as compared to later periods at these sites. At one location, the transition from Tilia to Fagus indicated that Tilia prevailed until c. 1300 years ago. Subsequent periods of forest clearance, with charcoal and cereal cultivation, initially including Hordeum and subsequently also Secale, were recorded. There was pollen evidence for grazing followed by shrub regeneration including Calluna, Erica, Juniperus and herbaceous taxa, and following that, a forest recovery of mainly Fagus, Picea and Pinus. This recovery is also recorded in historical forest records from 1880 CE onwards, emphasising the dominant role of plantation schemes. Results are placed in a wider framework of other sites in Denmark and southern Scandinavia, which have also documented a reduction of tree diversity and forest cover over the same period. The evidence from the long-term record is used to draw conclusions to assist forest restoration programmes.

Spatio-temporal Analysis of Land Surface Temperature in West Tripura District, India

Land surface temperature is a crucial factor that affects many ecological and environmental processes, such as the urban heat island effect, the health of the plants, and the effects of climate change. An increase in global temperature and erratic rainfall has been observed as a result of the weather's change during the recent past. Understanding the Spatio-temporal change of the land surface temperature can provide us with insights for sustainable land use management, urban planning, and also aid in planning and formulating plans to combat climate change. The present study area is the most populated district in Tripura and has experienced some of the fastest transformation in urban infrastructure. This study's objective was to investigate at how the land surface temperature (LST) varies across space and time in the West Tripura District. Landsat- 8 OLI and Landsat-5 ETM was the source of data to investigate the purpose of the study. The LST data was derived from thermal bands of the satellite imagery using remote sensing algorithm in ArcGIS and NDVI was computed using NIR and RED bands. Upto the year 2020, steady rise in built up areas was observed with a decline in land cover until 2010. However, the year 2020 witnessed an increase in vegetation cover. Similarly, the land surface temperature revealed higher values till 2010 may be attributed to loss of vegetation cover and subsequent decrease in values of land surface temperature after 2010 may be attributed to afforestation and growing popularity of plantation schemes.

Commercial timber plantations and community livelihoods: Insights from comparative case studies in southern Laos

The social impacts of industrial wood plantations (IWP) in Southeast Asia are extensively contested. Whilst productive, well-managed IWPs can offer a range of benefits to broader societies, they have also been criticised as driving community displacement and economic marginalisation. There is benefit to comparative case studies that identify the conditions whereby IWPs can support improved rural well-being. This paper assesses changes in resource tenure and livelihoods following plantation establishment in three selected case communities in southern Laos, using a rural appraisal approach. The study finds that IWPs can contribute positively to local livelihoods in Laos, under conditions. These occur when sufficient land is reserved for diversified land uses; local people secure plantation employment; there is adequate compensation for formal and informal land claims; and there are tangible contributions to village infrastructure and development. The availability plantation wage labour alone was found to be inadequate for driving broad livelihood improvement. Fieldwork identified the lingering negative social impacts of uncompensated land dispossession. Assessments of realised community benefits of plantation schemes should be considered in relation to the increasing underlying value of forest-lands in Laos. The paper provides updated policy options for an improved balance between stakeholder interests in Laos' strategic plantation sector.

Predicting the current and future distribution of pine woodland specialist plants in the Cairngorms National Park

The Caledonian pine forests of Scotland have declined significantly over the past century largely due to clearance for timber, fuel and grazing land. Approximately 1% of these native pinewoods remain from their historic extent, with a stronghold in the Cairngorms National Park. Creeping Lady’s-Tresses Goodyera repens (L.) R. Br., One-Flowered Wintergreen Moneses uniflora (L.) A. Gray and Twinflower Linnaea borealis L. favour this habitat, meaning that the clearance of pine woodland has resulted in widespread declines. There are multiple plantation schemes underway in the Cairngorms to reforest the Highlands, such as Cairngorms Connect, partly with the intent of assisting the recovery of pine woodland specialists. This study uses Maximum Entropy modelling (MaxEnt) to create species distribution models (SDMs), firstly to predict the current distribution for these species; thus, enabling land managers in the Cairngorms to target surveys with the hope of finding new populations. Secondly, future distribution models are created using different emissions scenarios to predict the regions of maximum habitat suitability for the study species, with the aim of visualising where pine woodland should be planted to ensure long-term habitat viability. The results showed that there are regions in the north and east of the Cairngorms which have the highest habitat suitability, currently and in the future. The creation of habitat corridors between these two regions should be a priority to prevent isolation between populations of pine woodland specialists. The high emissions pathway could increase the likelihood of isolation by significantly decreasing the habitat suitability between the most suitable areas.

PRELIMINARY RESULTS REGARDING THE BEHAVIOR OF SOME BLACKBERRIES GENOTYPES IN MOARA DOMNEASCĂ (ILFOV COUNTY) AREA CONDITIONS

Blackberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown. The blackberries contain significant amounts of polyphenol antioxidants such as anthocyanin pigments linked to potential health protection against several human diseases, so the demand is increasing. In order to identify the most suitable varieties for the Vlasia Plain area, in 2020 an experimental plot with 6 stable accessions was established. The cv. ‘Chester’, ‘Dar 8’, ‘Navaho’,‘Polar’, ‘Thornfree’, ‘Triple Crown’, were planted in a plantation scheme 3.0 m × 1.0 m. For each variety, during 2021, ripened fruits were harvested and biometric determinations have been done in the laboratory, being measured fruit weight and diameter, firmness, titratable acidity and pH, all fruit quality indicators. The preliminary results showed that blackberry varieties without thorns are larger than thorny varieties and more suitable for fresh fruit consumption, while the ‘Dar 8’ fruit are not so fragrant, their pulp is stronger, so they are more suitable for processing. The study will continue so statistical analysis can be performed

STRATEGI PENGELOLAAN AREAL DENGAN KONSERVASI TINGGI PADA PERKEBUNAN KELAPA SAWIT (STUDI KASUS PT ADEI PLANTATION & INDUSTRY KEBUN MANDAU)

The journey of the development of oil palm plantations in Indonesia has always been tinged with negative accusations and influences on export bans at the global level (world market). Facing these allegations, Indonesia has a sustainable oil palm plantation scheme contained in Permentan No. 38 of 2020 which contains the obligation of plantation businesses to own and manage areas with high conservation (NKT) in the company's operational area (HGU). The existence of NKT area in the plantation area becomes a mandatory requirement for sustainable oil palm plantations to be accepted by the world market. This research is important to do because, until now, the study of NKT area management strategies in oil palm plantation areas is still very lacking. This research was conducted at PT Adei Plantation & Industry Kebun Mandau, using survey methods and further analyzed using SWOT. The results of the study obtained the need for PT Adei Plantation & Industry Kebun Mandau to form a special institution of NKT management to manage NKT Area within the HGU area.

Plantation and politics in Williamite Ireland

In historical writing about Ireland in the years following the Glorious Revolution little attention has been paid to the idea of ‘plantation’. The governing assumption has been that any schemes to introduce substantial numbers of Protestant settlers were outmoded and unrealistic. This article takes another look at the extent to which, after 1691, elements in the Protestant propertied elite promoted plantation schemes and suggests that the idea was not only central to the plans for reconstruction envisaged by particular groups, especially in the province of Munster, but played a part in moulding a political outlook and creating a distinctively Whig political interest both in the Irish parliament and in the localities. The article goes on to propose that a set of developments in the middle years of the 1690s reduced interest in plantation, so that, by the early 1700s, the political energies of the ‘Protestant ascendancy’ were instead focused on legislation to restrict the property rights and political influence of what had come to be regarded as an entrenched Catholic majority in the population at large.

Land, sugar and pastoralism in Ethiopia: Comparing the impact of the Omo-Kuraz sugar projects on local livelihoods and food (in) security in the lower Omo Valley

This study assesses the impact of a large, state-sponsored sugar plantation scheme on agro-pastoralists’ livelihoods and local land use change in southern Ethiopia, specifically in the lower Omo Valley. The study compares the local perceptions on the ongoing Omo-Kuraz sugar project — sugar cane plantations and a cane-crushing factory — and describes how it has affected local communities’ environmental and livelihood strategies vis-à-vis the alleged ‘new development opportunities’. Focus group discussion, key informant interviews, and field observations were applied to get in-depth information about the socio-economic and environmental impacts of large scale land acquisitions. The results show that the implementation of large scale land acquisitions in the lower Omo Valley has put enormous pressure on local land use and land management systems. The Omo-Kuraz I and II projects, started in 2011, neither met the stated economic purposes of the then Ethiopian federal government nor satisfied the pastoral communities’ needs. The LSAI project is still highly contentious among the local community, the project office, and the local government. Our study recommends that shifting the perspective towards the local agro-pastoralists’ activities, understanding their views and ways of ‘using’ the environment, and creating a broader consultation platform with them may create opportunities for cooperation and synergy to optimize benefits and sustainably adapt the development project to the local context.

Response of Soil Enzyme Activities to Natural Vegetation Restorations and Plantation Schemes in a Landslide-Prone Region

Soil enzyme activities in different plantation types and land use patterns could indicate changes in soil quality. This research was aimed at exploring the dynamics of soil enzyme activities involved in carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycling, and their responses to changes in soil physicochemical properties resulting from natural vegetation restorations and plantation schemes. Knowing about the effects of soil physicochemical properties on soil enzyme patterns is crucial for understanding ecosystem functions and processes. The study selected four main land-use types (natural forestland, natural grassland, artificial forestland, and artificial grassland) and one control plot (bare land) in the West Qinling Mountains, China, which is a typical landslide region. We collected the soil samples from each land use type and tested their physicochemical properties and enzyme activities compared with control land. The results showed that both natural vegetation restoration and artificial plantation schemes have significant effects on enzyme activities. Soil physicochemical properties explained 92.2% of the variation in soil enzyme activities for natural vegetation restoration, while it only explained 77.8% of the variation in soil enzyme activities for plantation schemes. Furthermore, natural vegetation had a greater effect than the plantation schemes on soil enzyme activities.

Perceptions by Smallholder Farmers of Forest Plantations in Malaysia

Plantation forests are perceived to be the supplementary source of wood material for the large wood products industry in Malaysia, amidst the steadily reducing supply from her natural forests. Despite the government’s initiated plantation forests scheme, the participation of smallholder farmers has been limited. Smallholder farmers constitute the largest proportion of private farmers involved in all sectors of agricultural and plantation tree crop cultivation, including commodities such as rubber and palm oil. Therefore, this study examines the lack of interest among smallholder farmers to participate in establishing forest plantations, although they have a strong presence in the palm oil and rubber sectors. A structured questionnaire survey was conducted among 12,895 smallholder farmers currently involved in palm oil, rubber and other tree-crop cultivation. The study found that this group has little knowledge and awareness of the forest plantation scheme available, and there is a prevailing perception that the establishment of forest plantations is not environment-friendly and leads to biodiversity loss. The poor economic return, small land holding, and poorly structured market and supply chain are perceived as the significant constraints faced that limit the interest among the target groups to participate in this sector. Any effort to reverse this trend and garner higher interest from the target group will necessarily require a new policy framework that boosts the economic outlook of forest plantations among smallholder farmers.

Challenges faced by smallholders in achieving sustainable palm oil certification in Indonesia

• Smallholder sustainability certification offers the potential of more equitable and ecologically sustainable oil palm cultivation. • All of the independent smallholders studied face significant challenges in achieving certification. • Certain types of farmers, however, have greater advantages in achieving certification than others due to historical policies and programs. • Ensuring that larger numbers of smallholders attain certification requires addressing the structural disadvantages of independent smallholders. Reducing tropical deforestation caused by the expansion of agricultural and other commodities requires effective and equitable interventions for engaging small-scale producers. Interventions should reduce deforestation and environmental degradation while improving the welfare of rural households. Voluntary, sustainability certification schemes provide clear pathways and incentives for both large scale and small-scale producers to move towards more sustainable and inclusive commodity production. Although the benefits of certification to many small-scale commodity producers are debated, the certification of oil palm smallholders can provide ecological and social benefits under the right conditions. There are significant challenges for smallholders, in particular independent smallholders, to achieve certification. In this article, we evaluate the certification process of 1280 oil palm, independent smallholders and identify the main challenges they faced in achieving certification. We then analyze a dataset over 6261 farmers in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia to estimate which farmers are likely to face obstacles in achieving sustainability certification. The results of the study indicate that farmers that have been excluded by historical planning and agricultural extension programs as well as smallholder plantation schemes are disproportionately disadvantaged in comparison with farmers that were supported by these schemes. The results demonstrate that without the involvement of government and support from non-government or private sector actors, independent smallholders are unlikely to achieve voluntary, sustainability certification. To avoid the exclusion of smallholders from supply chains, a systematic effort would be required to overcome many of these structural disadvantages. Novel, multi-stakeholder approaches, in which the private sector and civil society organizations collaborate with subnational governments, may assist in overcoming these challenges.

Survivorship of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato in irrigated sugarcane plantation scheme in Ethiopia

BackgroundTo ensure food security, sub-Saharan Africa has initiated massive water resource development projects, such as irrigated agriculture, in recent years. However, such environmental modifications affect the survivorship and development of mosquitoes, which are vectors of different diseases. This study aimed at determining the effects of irrigation practices on development and survivorship of Anopheles gambiae s.l. in Ethiopia.MethodsA life table experiment was conducted to examine the effect of environmental modification on survivorship of both immature and adult An. gambiae s.l. in irrigated and non-irrigated areas. The pupation rate and development time of the immatures and adult longevity and fecundity were compared between the two settings.ResultsThe estimated mean survival time of female An. gambiae s.l. in the irrigated and non-irrigated areas was 37.9 and 31.3 days, respectively. A survival analysis showed that adult females of An. gambiae s.l. placed in an irrigated area lived significantly longer than those in a non-irrigated area (χ2 = 18.3, df = 1, P <0.001), and An. gambiae s.l. females lived significantly longer than males in both areas (P < 0.001).ConclusionsAdult An. gambiae s.l. survivorship was found to be enhanced in the irrigated area compared to non-irrigated area. Longer survival of adult mosquitoes in irrigated areas could have important implications for vectorial capacity and hence malaria transmission.Graphical

Stone pine (Pinus pinea) growth and cone yield as a function of planting density in Chile

Pinus pinea (stone pine) is an important species for its delicious seeds –the pine nuts–, the most expensive dry fruit worldwide. In native habitats, planting density is a key silvicultural tool in this highly heliophile species due to its impact on growth and cone yield. In Chile, the densities of adult plantations are medium and high. The goal of this study was to assess the impact of density on growth and cone yield in established plantations. Thirty plantations, 15 at high density (1,667 trees ha-1) and 15 at medium density (500 trees ha-1), were matched into 15 pairs of similar plantations regarding age and site characteristics. Planting density had a significant impact on P. pinea growth and cone yield. The medium density was associated with 46 % higher diameter-at-breast-height (DBH) and 2.8 times higher cone yield than those presented by a high-density plantation scheme. However, at 500 trees ha-1, average tree height might turn cone harvesting difficult and expensive. In humid areas (Chilean South macrozone), the medium planting density had a more important effect on cone yield than on growth. Our study confirms previous research in stone pine native habitats and highlights the need to find an optimum planting density to favor cone yield and harvest.

Plantations, women, and food security in Africa: Interrogating the investment pathway towards zero hunger in Cameroon and Ghana

In this paper, we critically engage with SDG-2- Target 2.3 and SDG-5 to examine how and why large-scale agricultural land acquisitions modify the social relations of women’s food access. Adopting qualitative methods and from agrarian political economy perspectives, we assess the implications of plantation investments on food security and gender equality in Cameroon and Ghana. The study draws on the impacts of various plantation schemes in Cameroon and Ghana to argue that the current all-encompassing framing of the SDG-2, whereby support for small-scale production appears to co-exist with the promotion of corporate-led agricultural investments, tends to create a vague interpretation of food security, even when capitalist motives override the interests of rural working men and women. In both countries, plantations have been characterised by displacement, reduced food production and competition over land resources in rural contexts where women bear the burden of social reproduction, particularly in subsistence and food provisioning for their households. Restricted access to farmlands hampers petty commodity production, and provokes rural exodus among farming populations in Cameroon who compete with pastoralists for land; and in the Ghana case, where settlers and migrants compete with dispossessed indigenes for arable lands. The study shows the inherent contradictions and tensions within the narratives of sustainable development and projects which are considered as potential pathways to the SDGs. One of such tension areas is between local food security- which is a gendered role for women in West/Central Africa – and the accumulation imperatives of capitalist investors. We iterate that achieving zero hunger requires gender-inclusive land and labour policies that recognise, protect and empower small farmers and women, and create opportunities for local and national food self-sufficiency.

Palm oil plantation and cultivation: Prosperity and productivity of smallholders

AbstractIndonesia developed the Smallholder Plantation Scheme (PIR) in the early 1980s, making smallholders an important part of the national scale. Increasing smallholder yields is an important instrument for increasing local income and livelihoods. However, small-scale oil palm expansion has problems with low productivity and quality of production. Therefore, to increase their productivity and improve their cultivation, this study measures the importance of planting behavior and specific treatment of farmers’ prosperity and productivity. To measure the possible significant differences between and within groups, a statistical approach, ANOVA, has been used while Spearman’s correlation matrix also has been used to measure the correlation between variables. This study finds that good seed treatment and adequate doses of fertilizer are important for farmers’ prosperity and productivity. Smallholder farmers have the least expenditure but the highest average production and income with the most extended growing age when compared with the other two groups of smallholder farmers. Even though the number of seeds used was the smallest, the success rate of smallholder planting was the highest. The optimal use of fertilizer and seed care alone is not significant enough to increase yields. It is a combination of other factors such as planting management practices, drainage capacity and soil substrate properties, climate characteristics, rainfall distribution, nutrient supply, and prevention of plant diseases and also determining maximum yield.

History and interpretation of early soil and organic matter investigations in Deli, Sumatra, Indonesia

This paper provides a history of the investigation of the soils and organic matter of Deli in Sumatra, Indonesia, for growing tobacco in the early 20th century and an interpretation based on current data, knowledge and understanding. We first review some early chemists and agrogeologists’ investigations on the soils of Deli to increase tobacco production. Van Bemmelen studied the humus of the soil of Deli in 1890 and formalised an 8-year fallow plantation scheme for growing tobacco. While maintaining organic matter had been established, the complexity of soil distribution in the area was more important in determining the quality of tobacco. It took another 40 years for the soil in Deli area to be properly mapped. Jan Henri Druif in the 1930s mapped and classified the soils of Deli based on their parent material and mineralogical composition. We then describe the rise and demise of the tobacco industry from 1930s-current. We examine the implication of the fallow system and soil distribution with the current understanding of soil carbon processes and recent data. The results are interpreted and discussed considering i) the myth of ”poor” tropical soils, ii) nutrient availability after slash and burn, iii) soil organic matter decline after forest conversion and recovery after fallow, and iv) soil mapping and provenance. Based on published studies and observed data coupled with modelling, we attempt to explain early researchers’ observations and deductions. We summarise soil organic carbon dynamic conditions in the tropics after 50 years of forest clearance: under fallow rotation, it is possible to maintain, on average, a constant value of 20% organic carbon (OC) decrease from the original level, while continuous cropping can decrease OC levels up to 30–40%. An extreme condition with continuous cultivation and little organic matter input can result in an OC decline of up to 80%. The historical studies enable to appreciate aspects of soil mapping and organic matter that are repeatedly overlooked in present-day research.

Land use alteration strategy to improve forest landscape structural quality in Radhanagar forest range under Bankura district

Such kind of human necessities restructured the existing landscape pattern which brings imbalance in regional biodiversity. Radhanagar Forest Range (RFR) in Bankura district has been faced same kind of activates since 1960. As a result, forest patch becomes isolated and structurally complex in nature which is an important cause for extinction of wild animal. To control this damage forest department increased forest area through several plantation schemes in vacant or barren land. But plantation areas were not appropriate in the question of structural forest quality in this region. The present study seems that forest structural quality is a vital consideration for balancing biodiversity, in concern of several ecological processes like species movement, connectivity, colonization and edge contrast. Suitable forest patch structure may possible when appropriate areas i.e. forest encroached areas will be select for plantation. To prove this statement, study considers two types of landuse alteration into forest land i) all barren land altered into forest and ii) selected encroached areas altered into forest land in RFR. ArcGIS 10.3 version software is used for technical map editing and preparing these spatial alteration maps. After that several landscape ecological indexes like Total Core Area Index (TCAI), Mean Core Area (MCA) at 300 m specified edge depth, Total Edge (TE), Edge Density (ED), Area Weighted Mean Shape Index (AWMSI), Area Weighted Mean Patch Fractal Dimension (AWMPFD) and Mean Patch Size (MPS) are calculated using FragStat 4.2 version software to compare both spatial alteration forest qualities. Comparison analysis explains that encroached areas alteration into forest land is qualitative to improve forest structural quality. It is interesting to know that less area will be planted in encroached area to get utmost forest structural qualities.

Economic analysis of high-density apple plantation scheme in Jammu and Kashmir

This paper evaluates the performance of the high-density apple plantation scheme, launched in 2016 in Jammu & Kashmir, India to boost both productivity and production of apples, amidst the stagnancy witnessed in the sector. Primary data was collected from apple farmers in two districts, Kulgam and Pulwama. The qualitative techniques were used to estimate the yield, establishment cost, and break-even year of the different orchard densities. Multiple Regression Analysis and multivariate statistical techniques were used for yield-forecasting and estimation of Net Present Value and Internal Rate of Return respectively. The results show that the yield has increased by two-five times than the traditional orchards. Break-even year for different densities without government was found to be 6-years while with government support it went down to just 4-5 years. Net Present Value and Internal Rate of Return, further substantiate high-profitability and early returns in these orchards. Further, it was concluded that the government subsidy provides significant support to the farmers in two main densities - 2200trees/hectare and 3300trees/hectare. Thus, the government should broaden the scheme and make it more inclusive for the overall development of the sector.

Особливості росту і розвитку рослин роду Corylus L. залежно від впливу оптичного випромінювання в умовах Правобережного Лісостепу України

Наведено результати досліджень особливостей росту і розвитку рослин фундука в умовах насаджень. Продуктивність рослин фундука насамперед пов'язана з фотосинтетичною активністю листків. Тому формування конструкцій насаджень істотно впливає на рівень плодоношення фундука. Створення різних конструкцій в поєднанні з урахуванням сортових особливостей фундука сприяє оптимальному розміщенню рослин у насадженнях і забезпечує їхню високу врожайність. Освітлення погіршується з ростом і розвитком рослин фундука і починає впливати на рівень плодоношення на 5-6 рік після закладення насаджень. У всіх досліджуваних сортів фундука незалежно від сили росту за форми крони "Кущ", нижня частина перебуває в умовах недостатнього освітлення – 19-30 %, яке не перевищує мінімального порогу – 30 % від відкритої поверхні. У середній частині крони рівень освітлення також був досить низький – 55-65 %. Найбільш освітленою виявилася верхня частина крони, світловий режим якої становив – 80-94 % від повної освітленості на відкритій поверхні. Погіршення рівня освітленості в контрольному варіанті "Кущ" відбулося через постійний ріст пагонів та їх загущення. Окрім цього, відбулося змикання рослин фундука в лінії ряду, що значно утруднювало проникнення сонячного світла в середину крони. У насадженнях із конструкціями насаджень "Вогнище", "Дерево" та "Татура" складався більш сприятливий, порівняно з контролем, світловий режим, що є наслідком оптимального розміщення стовбурових пагонів та гілок у кроні рослини фундука. У варіантах досліду "Вогнище", "Дерево" та "Татура" перевищення мінімального порогу освітлення у низькорослих сортів спостережено на висоті 0,5 м від поверхні ґрунту, що позитивно впливало на плодоношення рослин фундука під час застосування цих конструкцій насаджень. Тобто ступінь освітлення більше залежить від формування конструкцій насаджень, ніж від сортових особливостей рослин фундука, і отримані показники свідчать про значну перевагу освітленості конструкцій "Вогнище", "Дерево" та "Татура", порівняно з контролем. Найбільш розріджену схему садіння рекомендовано застосовувати для високорослих сортів фундука під час використання конструкцій насаджень "Кущ" і "Вогнище" – 6×6 м. Найщільнішу схему садіння доцільно використовувати для низькорослих сортів фундука за формування конструкції насадження "Дерево" і "Татура" – 3×5 м.

Plantation: Its Process in Relation to Scotland's Atlantic Communities, 1590s–1630s

The article sets the Scottish and British Crown's colonizing measure vis-a-vis the Scottish communities of the North Atlantic arc within a broader imperial framework. Underlying such course of action was the articulation of a rhetoric as a vital linguistic tool for its plantations' raison d'etre. The study delineates key aspects in the major plantation schemes of Scotland that were implemented between the 1590s and 1630s. Both the internal colonizing project of Lewis and the external ones of Ireland, briefly, and Nova Scotia, will be primarily assessed from the bottom-up perspective of the maritime communities of the northern Highlands. Distancing themselves from the governmental rhetoric, these ventures helped reconfigure clan allegiance and dynamics in the Lewis case, and reposition the role and identity of these far-northerners in the Irish and Nova Scotia plans as well as in redefining these enterprises' nature.