Plant Productivity Research Articles

Research on: Formulation and evaluation of polyherbal soap

People have been using medicinal plants for centuries to treat various ailments. The extract from the leaves, stems, and roots of these plants has been a natural remedy for many health issues. Commercial soaps often contain harmful ingredients, making natural herbal soaps a good alternative. Bacterial skin infections are common and require proper treatment and skincare. Some herbal plant extracts and oils have been found to have antibacterial properties. To address this, an antibacterial Polyherbal soap was formulated using ingredients like curcumin, neem, lemon juice, aloe vera, and almond oil. Neem leaves have traditionally been used to treat skin disorders due to their antioxidant properties. Lemon water has antibacterial and antioxidant capabilities that keep the skin healthy and rejuvenated. Aloe vera is known for preventing aging, reducing acne, and moisturizing the skin. Turmeric is beneficial for treating skin injuries and conditions like psoriasis. The Polyherbal soap was tested for its antibacterial activity and showed positive results. So, the use of medicinal plants in soap production offers cost-effective benefits with minimal side effects.

Innovative fertilizers with added plant extracts in the cultivation of Valeriana officinalis and Raphanus sativus and in the control of Botrytis and powdery mildew

Research objective: The main objective of this article is to report the results obtained from the use of innovative fertilisers with added plant extracts in agriculture. In particular, this article will deal with two important topics: i) study of the effect of innovative fertilisers on the biomass of vegetable plants; ii) possible control on mortality due to diseases such as Botrytis and powdery mildew. The information reported in this research work can support the design of cultivation systems in which agricultural sustainability is fundamental due to the presence of plant extracts as an alternative to synthetic plant protection products. Materials and Methods: The plants were grown in pots under controlled conditions; 30 seedlings per thesis, divided into 3 replications of 10 plants each, were planted in early January 2024. The plants used in the trial were Valeriana officinalis L. and Raphanus sativus. The five experimental groups in cultivation were: i) group control, irrigated with water and previously fertilised substrate; ii) group with Aktigen, irrigated with water and previously fertilised substrate, (3 ml per plant once a week); iii) group with Lifegen, irrigated with water and previously fertilised substrate, (3 ml per plant once a week); iv) group with QI-gen, irrigated with water and previously fertilised substrate, (3 ml per plant once a week); v) Group with Ecklonia maxima (EK): (peat 70% + pumice 20%), irrigated with water and previously fertilised substrate, (3 ml per plant once a week). On 5 May 2024, plant height, number of leaves, primary root length (mm), biomass of the aerial and root system, and number of dead plants (Botrytis and powdery mildew) were recorded. Results and Discussion: The experiment showed that the use of innovative fertilisers enriched with plant extracts can indeed significantly improve the vegetative and root growth of Valeriana officinalis L. and Raphanus sativus. All treatments showed a significant improvement over the untreated control and the commercial Ecklonia maxima treatment for the agronomic parameters analysed, but the Qi-gen treatment was significantly the best for increasing vegetative and root biomass. Improvements were also found in plant height, leaf number and root length. The trial also revealed the significant effect on Botrytis control of the product Aktigen and on powdery mildew of the product Lifegen, in fact they reduced the mortality of Valeriana officinalis and Raphanus sativus seedlings. Conclusions: A number of scientific studies have shown that the application of biofertilizers can improve plant growth, productivity, quality, and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Because of their multiple properties, they have become increasingly important as advanced agricultural techniques in global agriculture. This type of product, which includes natural substances, will contribute significantly to ecologically and economically sustainable agricultural production systems in the coming years, as well as serving as the foundation for large-scale sustainable agriculture in the future.

Salmonella Typhimurium caused an unprecedentedly large foodborne outbreak in Finland in 2021.

Salmonella infections are significant causes of foodborne outbreaks in the European Union. This study investigates a sudden increase in gastroenteritis patients in the hospital district of Central Finland in June 2021. The primary aim was to study the outbreak's magnitude and source of the outbreak. Epidemiological, microbiological, environmental and traceback investigations were conducted. Over 700 persons fell ill during the outbreak caused by Salmonella Typhimurium associated with a daycare lunch. Similar S. Typhimurium was found in the patients and a vegetable mix containing iceberg lettuce, cucumber and peas served during lunch. The traceback investigation revealed that the batch information of vegetables from the wholesaler was not complete. The wholesaler had received quality complaints about the iceberg lettuce from the central kitchen. The manufacturer did not test the suspected batch for Salmonella since the production plant had given a certificate declaring it Salmonella negative. The most suspect ingredient was one batch of iceberg lettuce due to quality complaints. The lettuce had not been served in two daycare centres without cases. We recommend that in order to enable thorough microbiological investigation, institutional kitchens store the food samples separately as part of the internal quality control and that food items should always be tested when Salmonella contamination in an outbreak is suspected.

Investigating sexual and asexual modes of reproduction in Palmer Amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri)

Abstract Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson), a dioecious wind-pollinated plant, is one of the most troublesome crop weeds in the United States and is spreading northwards. The prodigious production of seed contributes to establishment of populations and spread across the landscape. Sexual reproduction via outcrossing is likely the primary mode of seed production for this dioecious plant. However, A. palmeri may also be capable of autonomous asexual seed production (apomixis), which could be beneficial during colonization. We conducted two studies of female isolation from pollen to investigate the propensity for autonomous seed production in 19 populations across eastern North America. In the first we observed low frequency seed production on many isolated females. Using flow cytometry of seed samples (FCSS) we primarily found patterns of ploidy consistent with sexual reproduction; no significant differences in ploidy between seeds produced on isolated females (putative apomicts) and non-isolated females (putatively sexual) were detected. We also investigated patterns of DNA content and found no evidence for polyploidy in 153 samples, which is often observed in apomictic species. The second female isolation trial utilized sex-specific molecular markers to identify and remove males prior to flowering, and we observed zero seed production. Overall, we did not detect evidence in support of apomixis in these populations of A. palmeri, suggesting that apomixis is unlikely to have played a role in the northward advance of this species in eastern North America. We also investigated whether there is variation between females and males in size and secondary reproductive traits. We found evidence for sexual dimorphism in three of six traits investigated: females are taller at senescence, produce longer secondary branches, and more axillary flowers than males. Differences in cost of reproduction and strategies for pollen release vs. pollen capture are likely factors shaping the evolution of sexual dimorphism in this wind-pollinated dioecious plant.

Mitigation of Karenia brevis Cells and Brevetoxins Using Curcumin, a Natural Supplement

Curcumin, a natural plant product, was investigated as a mitigation tool against Karenia brevis, the toxic dinoflagellate responsible for Florida red tides. A series of laboratory bench-top studies were conducted with additions of 0.1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 40 mg/L curcumin to K. brevis at an average of 1.0 × 106 cells/L to determine the efficacy of curcumin against K. brevis cells and brevetoxins and to optimize treatment dosage. Treatment with 5 mg/L of curcumin reduced K. brevis cell abundance by 89% and total brevetoxins by 60% within 24 h. Lower concentrations of curcumin (0.1–3 mg/L) exhibited between a 2 and 45% reduction in K. brevis and a reduction in brevetoxins of between 2 and 44% within 24 h. At the highest curcumin doses, 30 and 40 mg/L, a 100% reduction in cell abundance was observed by 6 h, with reduction in total brevetoxins by at least 64% in 48 h. These results suggest that curcumin, used alone or potentially in combination with other technologies, is a promising K. brevis bloom mitigation option.

Rapid and In-Field Sensing of Hydrogen Peroxide in Plant by Hydrogel Microneedle Patch.

The rapidly changing climate is exacerbating the environmental stress that negatively impacts crop health and yield. Timely sensing of plant response to stress is beneficial to timely adjust planting conditions, promoting the healthy growth of plants, and improving plant productivity. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is an importantmolecule of signal transduction in plants. However, the common methods for detecting H2O2in plants are associated with certain drawbacks, such as long extraction time, cumbersome steps, dependence on large instruments, and difficulty in realizing in-field sensing. Therefore, it is urgent to establish more efficient detection methods to realize the rapid detection of H2O2 content in plants. In this research, poly (methyl vinyl ether-alt-maleic acid) (PMVE/MA) hydrogel microneedle (MN) patch for rapid extraction of leaf sap are prepared, and the extraction mechanism of PEG-crosslinked PMVE/MA hydrogel MN patch isstudied. A method of rapid detection of H2O2 content in plants based on MN patch with optical detection technology is constructed. The hydrogel MN patch can be usedfor timely H2O2 analysis. This application enables new opportunities in plant engineering, and can be extended to the safety and healthmonitoring of other plants and animals.

Industry 4.0 Solutions as Enablers for the Sustainability of the Italian Ceramic Tiles Sector

The Italian ceramic tiles district has a long tradition but is called to face new sustainability challenges related to the profitability, the environmental impact, and the capability to offer pleasant and motivating working conditions for new young employees. New Industry 4.0 approaches are emerging to evolve the current industrial organization and are expected to enhance the overall economic, environmental, and social viability. In this context, this paper aims at demonstrating the positive correlation between the new technologies and the sustainability of the sector. It outlines the main achievements of a 4-year project financed by the Italian government, involving the entire chain made up of research centers, technology providers, and tiles producers. The presented approach is concretized in several technological innovations based on the Industry 4.0 paradigm. Furthermore, a pilot line was created to test the new systems and collect data on the process. The main results are reported in terms of improved sustainability KPIs, such as extended possibility of control of production plants, waste reduction, lower consumption of raw materials and chemical additives. Finally, a sensible increase in the operators’ digitalization level is registered, making a shift from a physical and hard working environment towards more conceptual and attractive job conditions.

Fungal behavior and recent developments in biopulping technology.

Biological pretreatment of wood chips by fungi is a well-known approach prior to mechanical- or chemical pulp production. For this biological approach, a limited number of white-rot fungi with an ability to colonize and selectively degrade lignin are used to pretreat wood chips allowing the remaining cellulose to be processed for further applications. Biopulping is an environmentally friendly technology that can reduce the energy consumption of traditional pulping processes. Fungal pretreatment also reduces the pitch content in the wood chips and improves the pulp quality in terms of brightness, strength, and bleachability. The bleached biopulps are easier to refine compared to pulps produced by conventional methodology. In the last decades, biopulping has been scaled up with pilot trials towards industrial level, with optimization of several intermediate steps and improvement of economic feasibility. Nevertheless, fundamental knowledge on the biochemical mechanisms involved in biopulping is still lacking. Overall, biopulping technology has advanced rapidly during recent decades and pilot mill trials have been implemented. The use of fungi as pretreatment for pulp production is in line with modern circular economy strategies and can be implemented in existing production plants. In this review, we discuss some recent advances in biopulping technology, which can improve mechanical-, chemical-, and organosolv pulping processes along with their mechanisms.

Carrabiitol®, a Novel Oligosaccharide Polyol Composition, Mitigates the Impact of Flooding, Drought, Salinity, and High Temperature in Tomato

Abiotic stress results in various physiological and biochemical changes in plants. Osmolytes play a pivotal role in improving the tolerance to abiotic stress in plants. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a commercial formulation, Carrabiitol®, an oligosaccharide polyol composition, in alleviating adverse impacts of abiotic stress in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. var. Arka Rakshak) plants. Plants were raised from seed and treated with 1 mL/L, 2 mL/L, and 3 mL/L of Carrabiitol®. The foliage of developing plants was treated at the 2–3 leaf stage (T2, T3, and T4) and at pre-flowering stage (T5, T6, and T7). Growth conditions were compared with those of plants developed from untreated seed (T1). Developing tomato plants were then exposed to flooding, salinity (50 mM NaCl), high temperature (41.1 °C), or drought at the flowering stage. Plants were evaluated for their dry weight, leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, antioxidant potential, chlorophyll, carotenoid, glucose, sucrose, malondialdehyde, and proline contents. Pre-treated seed, which received a booster treatment at the 2–3 leaf stage (T4 = seed treatment and booster at the 2–3 leaf stage with 3 mL/L Carrabiitol®) and pre-flowering stages (T5, T6, and T7 = seed treatment and booster doses at the pre-flowering stage with 1, 2, and 3 mL/L Carrabiitol®, respectively), was effective in mitigating negative impacts on various growth parameters of stressed tomato plants (p < 0.05). Carrabiitol® may be an effective, sustainable, and bio-rational organic osmolyte formulation for reducing the effects of abiotic stress on plant growth and productivity.

Practical Guidelines for Farm Waste Utilization in Sustainable Kale Production

Natural amendments from agricultural waste to improve soil physicochemical properties continuously attract research interest in promoting eco-friendly plant production. The present study evaluated the proper use of sawdust, biochar, and compost made from farm waste for kale production from seedling propagation to field conditions. From the seedling propagation process, the results demonstrate that the most suitable growing medium for kale seedings was 0.5:1:1 v/v of sawdust + biochar + compost, which gave the fastest mean germination times (2.71 days) and the highest seed germination percentage (78.33%). In addition to investigating the selected growing media as the soil amendments at five different rates (0, 6.25, 12.50, 18.75, 25.00, and 31.25 t ha−1), the result reveals that the fresh weight of marketable leaves was significantly highest under the 31.25 t ha−1 treatment. The application rate that yielded the highest gross profit margins was eight times higher than the control. Moreover, in some harvesting periods, the kale leaf yields under the treatment of 31.25 t ha−1 showed higher total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents.

Sources of fertilizers on the phytotechnical characteristics, oxidative stress and thymol production of Thymus vulgaris L.

The objective of this study was to assess the effects of different fertilizer sources on the phytotechnical characteristics, oxidative stress, and thymol production of Thymus vulgaris. The experiment was conducted in 3-dm³ pots containing soil:sand (2:1) + treatment (no fertilizer, organic fertilizer, or chemical fertilizer). The organic fertilizer was 8 kg m-2 of an equal mixture of bovine, goat, and quail manures. The variables assessed were leaf, stem, root, and total dry weights; chlorophyll and carotenoid contents; leaf nutrients; total polyphenols; total antioxidant capacity; oxygen radical absorption capacity; DPPH free radical scavenging activity; essential oil content; and thymol production, content, and yield. Organic fertilization significantly increased the variables assessed and reduced oxidative stress indicators. It resulted in gains in the dry weight of the plants and the accumulation of nutrients in dry leaves of T. vulgaris. For the quantitative parameters of the essential oil and thymol, organic fertilization was significantly higher than the other treatments, especially for thymol content and yield. T. vulgaris plants fertilized with organic fertilizer maximize their plant production and their yield of compounds of interest, such as thymol, possibly because these outputs indicate a balance between improved vegetative production and the elimination of reactive oxygen species.

Insight into physico-chemical properties and microbial community structure of biogas slurry from household biogas plants of sub-Himalaya for its implications in improved biogas production.

Numerous metagenomics studies, conducted in both full-scale anaerobic digesters and household biogas plants, have shed light on the composition and activity of microbial flora essential for optimizing the performance of biogas reactors, underscoring the significance of microbial community composition in biogas plant efficiency. Although the efficiency of household biogas plants in the sub-Himalayan region has been reported, there is no literature evidence on the microbial community structure of such household biogas plants in the sub-Himalayan region. The current study evaluated the physico-chemical properties and bacterial community structure from the slurry samples of household biogas plants prevalent in the sub-Himalayan region. The slurry samples were observed to be rich in nutrients; however, their carbon and nitrogen contents were higher than the recommended standard values of liquid-fermented organic manure. The species richness and diversity indices (Chao1, Shannon, and Simpson) of household biogas plants were quite similar to the advanced biogas reactors operating at mesophilic conditions. 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing reveals microbial diversity, showing a higher abundance of Firmicutes (70.9%) and Euryarchaeota (9.52%) in advanced biogas reactors compared to household biogas plants. Microbial analysis shows a lack of beneficial microbes for anaerobic digestion, which might be the reason for inefficient biogas production in household biogas plants of the sub-Himalayan region. The lack of efficient bacterial biomass may also be attributed to the digester design, feedstock, and ambient temperatures. This study emphasized the establishment of efficient microbial consortia for enhanced degradation rates that may increase the methane yield in biogas plants.

Direct vs. indirect biogas methanation for liquefied biomethane production: A concept evaluation

Conventional liquefied biomethane (LBM) production plants consist of upgrading and liquefaction processes. Commonly, the captured CO2 during biogas upgrading is emitted into the atmosphere. One alternative, to produce more LBM, is to combine the conventional LBM production plant with the Power-to-Gas concept. Within this context, green H2 produced from renewable electricity can react with the CO2 in the biogas mixture, producing additional CH4. The present study evaluated the feasibility of integrating methanation with conventional LBM production plants. The performance of the proposed process designs was assessed through exergy and cost analysis considering detailed models. The results illustrated that integrated direct biogas methanation was superior to methanation of captured CO2. The integrated scheme with direct biogas methanation increased the LBM production by 52.2 % compared to the conventional LBM production plant but with lower exergy efficiency. It was indicated the feasibility of the integrated scheme through direct biogas methanation was highly dependent on the price of H2. A H2 price of 1.27 USD/kg H2 was required to produce LBM at a similar price as the conventional LBM production plant.

Microalgae production in an industrial-scale photobioreactors plant: A comprehensive Life Cycle assessment

Microalgae cultivation provides multiple opportunities to produce valuable bioproducts, but greater clarity must be achieved regarding the real sustainability of current technologies. Numerous life cycle assessment (LCA) studies have been conducted so far. However, most of them were based on literature data and/or extrapolations of lab-scale results, while only a few studies used primary data from pilot or full-scale microalgal plants. Moreover, the obtained results showed great variability, leaving the debate on microalgae sustainability fully open.This work presents a thorough LCA based on primary data from an industrial-scale microalgal facility located in Caltagirone, Italy. The plant is based on vertically-stacked horizontal photobioreactors (total volume of 40.4 m3) installed in a greenhouse and has a capacity of 1200 kgDW/y (Chlorella vulgaris). A cradle-to-gate assessment was performed with the functional unit of 1 kgDW biomass, including operational and infrastructural data. The results emphasized the key role in the generation of potential impacts played by cultivation among process stages and by chemicals (nutrients and cleaning agents) and electricity (mainly for agitation and thermoregulation) among flow types. In comparison with studies from the literature, the analysed microalgal plant has an intermediate environmental performance (e.g., global warming potential of 153 kg CO2,eq/kgDW). This result is encouraging, as it comes from a reliable assessment built on full-scale primary data. On the other hand, it highlights the need to explore alternative strategies (e.g., industrial symbiosis and circular bioeconomy) to reduce the environmental footprint of the process and enhance its economic attractiveness.

ТІНЬОВІ ВІДНОСИНИ ПРИ ВИРОБНИЦТВІ ТА ОБІГУ ПРОДУКЦІЇ РОСЛИННИЦТВА В УКРАЇНІ ТА НАПРЯМИ ЗАПОБІГАННЯ ЇМ

Introduction. The sector of national agricultural production and sales of plant products has significant volumes of the shadow economy. First of all, it is about shadow farming on the land and shadow circulation of plant products. Both the owners of the land, who manage non-publicly, and the economy of the country in general suffer from such negative phenomena. Moreover, shadow agrarian production affects other related industries, which increases the scope of the consequences of the illegal economy. Problem Statement. The problem of shadow production and circulation of plant products is complex and has existed for more than a decade. Attempts to solve this problem have not yielded real results so far. There are objective and subjective factors that have caused the existence of shadow production and circulation of plant products in Ukraine. After all, a situation has developed in the country, in which some business entities cannot manage land publicly for a number of objective reasons, while others benefit from shadow management. Participants in the shadow circulation of crop production are land owners who manage their own land alone or give land for use without registering the right to lease. The beneficiaries of the shadow circulation of crop production are land tenants, suppliers of commodity and material values for crop production, buyers of crop production and other subjects who seek and are able to receive profits from shadow operations. The purpose is to justify the necessity of detinization of land management processes and the circulation of plant products. Methods. The following methods are used: abstract-logical, systematization, dialectical and formal logic, expert evaluations. Results. Shadow farming on the land and shadow circulation of plant products were studied. A number of factors have been identified that cause the existence of shadow farming on land and the shadow circulation of plant products. The necessity and possibility of ending shadow farming on the land and the shadow circulation of plant products have been proven. Conclusions. The problems of shadow management on land and shadow circulation of plant products can be solved through legal, institutional and organizational mechanisms, the application of which will be aimed at creating conditions under which public management on land will provide the producer with more economic benefits than shadow management.

Exogenous Cytokinin 4PU-30 Modulates the Response of Wheat and Einkorn Seedlings to Ultraviolet B Radiation

Exogenous Cytokinin 4PU-30 Modulates the Response of Wheat and Einkorn Seedlings to Ultraviolet B Radiation

Alternative application of availability and deliverability studies to reduce the energy sectors’ carbon emissions

The objective of the paper is to present the advantages of utilising reliability, availability and maintainability (RAM) studies as a decision-making tool for the deployment of carbon capture and storage (CCS), by providing detailed and quantifiable CCS rates of the analysed design concept. The study used methodology to predict carbon capture rates with high confidence for several compression and dehydration train design concepts. This allowed the operator to make decisions on the most cost-efficient design, while having a confident understanding of the design-specific carbon capture potentials. The most favourable CCS concept was combined with the existing liquefied natural gas plant RAM model and production profile for a detailed analysis of remaining daily carbon dioxide (CO2) venting rates as a result of potential CCS outages. The RAM models are based on generic and proven reliability data and include a level of detail that ensures a very reliable prediction of exact carbon capture rates. Besides analysing and comparing the design concept results as system availability, the CCS concept was analysed for its carbon capture deliverability. This provided the operator with a high confidence of average as well as monthly CO2 capture and venting rates for selected CO2 production profiles. The application of RAM for CCS and other energy sustainability projects has proven to be a powerful tool, allowing operators to make informed decisions towards achieving net-zero efficiency. Providing operators with an accurate and long-term prediction of their carbon footprint, when analysed in combination with their energy portfolio.

Unlocking the Potential of Pepper Plants under Salt Stress: Mycorrhizal Effects on Physiological Parameters Related to Plant Growth and Gas Exchange across Tolerant and Sensitive Genotypes

Agriculture is confronted with the challenge of ensuring global food security, yet the rapid expansion of salinity stress undoubtedly restricts plant productivity in cultivable areas, posing a significant threat to crop yields. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMFs) have emerged as a biological tool for enhancing plant salt stress tolerance. To utilize this biological tool, this study evaluated the response in growth and physiological parameters of tolerant (Karaisali) and sensitive (Demre) pepper genotypes. The experiment involved mycorrhizal-treated (Glomus clarium) and non-mycorrhizal (control) plants of both the tolerant and sensitive pepper genotypes. The plants were subjected to two salt doses: 75 and 150 mM. The plant growth and physiological parameters were measured at 40 days after transplanting. The mycorrhizal activity was found to be significantly more effective in the sensitive genotype. We found notable differences in mycorrhizal activity between the pepper genotypes under salt stress conditions, with the sensitive genotype “Demre” showing greater responsiveness to mycorrhizal association compared with the “Karaisali” variety. Under both moderate (75 mM NaCl) and higher salt stress levels (150 mM NaCl), both the “Karaisali” and “Demre” varieties exhibited substantial increases in their shoot dry weights. However, these increases were consistently higher in the “Demre” plants. Moreover, the AMFs demonstrated significant enhancements in photosynthesis rates under both moderate and high salinity levels in both genotypes. Overall, our findings suggest that AMFs play a crucial role in improving plant growth, water status, and photosynthesis characteristics, particularly in salt-sensitive pepper genotypes, under moderate-to-high salinity levels. In conclusion, the plant growth, water status, and photosynthesis characteristics of the salt-sensitive pepper genotype were significantly improved by AMFs at medium and high salinity levels, such as 75 mM and 150 mM NaCl, respectively.

Little Brands, Big Profits? Effect of Agricultural Geographical Indicators on County-Level Economic Development in China

AGIs (agricultural geographical indicators) are effective quality signals that can improve market welfare, but few studies have investigated the impact of AGIs on economic development. To fill this gap, this paper explores the impact of AGIs on per capita GDP and its mechanisms, according to country-level data in China from 2000 to 2018. For every additional AGI in the country, GDP per capita increased by 0.2–0.4%. Our conclusion remained reliable after various robustness tests. These effects were more salient in western areas, the main grain-producing areas, and settled areas. AGIs related to aquatic environments, animal husbandry, and planting products promoted economic development most significantly. For these effects, encouraging an increase in agricultural value (improving the quantity and quality of products) and promoting the agglomeration of populations, capital, and enterprises in the agricultural sector were the main mechanisms.

The Effect of Combined Application of Biocontrol Microorganisms and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Plant Growth and Yield of Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

Sustainable plant production requires less use of synthetic chemicals in plant nutrition and protection. Microbial products are among the most promising substitutes for chemicals. With the increasing popularity and availability of such products, it has become obligatory to use different microbes together. The effect of this has been tested in several studies, but their results have sometimes been contradictory depending on the microbial strains tested and the mode of application. We tested the effect of two commercially available antagonists and Funneliformis mosseae alone and in combination on tomato. Mycorrhizal treatment increased plant growth and yield, both alone and combined with the antagonists; however, mycorrhizal root colonization was not influenced by the antagonist. This treatment also led to a slight decrease in the occurrence of Trichoderma spp. on tomato roots but did not impede the colonization of roots by the applied Trichoderma strain. Our result confirmed that Trichoderma asperellum (T34) and Streptomyces griseoviridis (K61) can be safely combined with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), namely with F. mosseae.