Strategy For Plant Conservation Research Articles

Strategic requirements for plant conservation in the Arabian Peninsula

This paper briefly evaluates the activities of the Arabian Plant Specialist Group (APSG), which were initiated in response to the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC). For the Arabian Peninsula countries of Oman, Saudi Arabia and Yemen, substantial progress has been made towards meeting the 2010 targets of a regional plant checklist, an IUCN Red List and a programme of identifying and describing Important Plant Areas. A proposal to revise the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation for 2011–2020 is considered with respect to the strategic requirements for successfully implementing a revised strategy in the Arabian Region. Particular attention is paid to the development of online identification tools, to the widespread collection of biodiversity data and the education and training required for ensuring that conservation initiatives in the region are viable in the long term.

Fit for purpose: the importance of quality standards in the cultivation and use of live plant collections for conservation

The one activity that is common to all botanic gardens is the cultivation of plants. Many also have education, science, conservation, events and exhibitions programmes but cultivating plants is at the core of every botanic garden and plants are used to support all these activities. With existing and potential threats to plants and habitats it is essential that botanic gardens contribute to both the science and practice of plant conservation. This is because they have the staff skills and some of the resources required to make a significant contribution. However, if the live plant collections are to play a part in this work, and they must, then they must be guided by a Collection Policy and achieve the highest standards of sampling, record keeping and cultivation to make sure that the plants in question are fit for purpose. After describing the Collection Policy for the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE) in Part 1, the paper covers the importance of wild origin material, targets, review and audits in driving up standards in Part 2. In Part 3, the inadequacy of some conservation collections are described. The approach taken by three different conservation programmes at RBGE which have embraced the need for rigorous standards in conservation collections are then described. These are the International Conifer Conservation Programme, the Scottish Plants Programme and RBGE’s Target 8 (of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation) Project. Examples from RBGE’s Living Collection and Collection Policy are used throughout to illustrate the points being made.

Morphological and genetic differentiation in populations of the dispersal‐limited coco de mer (Lodoicea maldivica): implications for management and conservation

AbstractAims Developing plant conservation strategies requires knowledge of ecological and genetic processes underlying population dynamics. We aimed to quantify morphological and genetic differentiation among remnant populations of the iconic coco‐de‐mer palm Lodoicea maldivica. We hypothesized that limited gene flow among widely spaced populations would result in high genetic variation and large phenotypic differences among populations.Location Islands of Praslin and Curieuse (CU), Seychelles, Indian Ocean.Methods We conducted an extensive population survey and recorded morphological parameters for 447 Lodoicea in the main populations at Vallée de Mai (VM) and Fond Ferdinand (FF) on Praslin, and on CU. We collected leaf material from 180 trees in these populations for DNA genotyping using amplified fragment length polymorphisms.Results A total of 16,766 Lodoicea trees were recorded in the three populations (72.6% of Lodoicea on both islands). Lodoicea trees at VM and FF showed similar morphology, but differed in most parameters from those at CU, which were shorter, grew more slowly and produced fewer seeds. Mean overall genetic diversity was 0.337, and percentage of polymorphic loci was 91.1. Genetic diversity of the CU population was lower than that at VM and FF. There was weak genetic differentiation between CU and Praslin populations, but 99% of all genetic diversity was within populations.Main conclusions Trees on CU differed in growth and morphology from those of the two Praslin populations. These phenotypic differences, however, were not mirrored in the genetic structure of the populations. All populations were relatively genetically diverse with remarkably little differentiation among populations. This suggests that the capacity of Lodoicea to dominate across a range of habitats may be because of high phenotypic plasticity. High genetic connectivity may be maintained through long‐distance wind pollination. Given the uncertainty about the extent of underlying adaptive variation, we recommend that restoration projects avoid transferring seeds between island populations.

The evolutionary analysis of human behaviour: its potential to increase plant conservation success

Humans derive most of their well-being from plants, a self renewing natural resource. Yet human activities aimed at increasing well-being are threatening self renewal of some of these species. Some are directly threatened by over exploitation. Most become threatened as an unforeseen consequence of other activities principally agriculture, commerce, industrialisation and the manufacture and use of artificial fertilisers. The evidence suggests that the evolutionary need for reproductive success in humans has led our use of natural sources to be unsustainable throughout our species history. The need to acquire resource to achieve mate selection remains the same today as for our earliest relatives. Only the extent and rate of acquisition has changed in recent times and with it the environment and the diversity of plants that survive. Throughout our history, human ingenuity has often been required to rebalance the demand for plant derived benefits for well-being with their supply. Both technical and social ingenuity have been used to achieve the necessary outcome. The targets set within the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation reflect the need for both social and technical ingenuity if the loss of plant diversity is to be halted, with 10 of the 16 targets focussing on social change and only 4 requiring technical innovation. Yet, inspection of the literature shows little use is made of the evolutionary analysis of human behaviour (evolutionary psychology, human behavioural ecology and dual inheritance theory) in the design of projects seeking plant conservation. This paper attempts to begin to close this gap.

Using the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation to guide conservation implementation in the UK Overseas Territories

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) was adopted by the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 2002. Staff at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew were closely involved in the development of the GSPC and contributed to the development of several of the targets and the plan of work which resulted from its adoption. The GSPC has become a key document for Kew to help guide its conservation policy and implementation. The UK Overseas Territories (UKOTs) Programme is one of Kew’s cross-departmental science teams whose members work in collaboration with UKOT Governments and NGOs on conservation projects with the overall aim of supporting them in the implementation of the GSPC and in achieving its targets. The GSPC has provided an excellent overall framework to help shape conservation strategy, planning, and action in UKOTs. Like many small islands, UKOTs face a wide range of challenges in conserving their biodiversity and retaining ecosystem services whilst enabling development and maintaining livelihoods. Habitat loss and fragmentation, invasive alien species, development, and the increasing threat of global climate change present the most significant conservation challenges. At the heart of the UKOTs programme is a comprehensive work plan of specimen and data collection, mapping and capacity building in Territories plus facilitating access to historical specimens and data held at Kew. This enables progress towards achieving Targets 1, 2 and 3 (understanding and documenting plant diversity) and Targets 5, 7, 8 and 10 (conservation of plant diversity). All of these activities are accompanied by an extensive programme of capacity building to help support the development of technical skills and infrastructure to enable UKOTs to implement the GSPC (Targets 15 and 16) and the production of materials and interactions with schools and community groups to promote education and awareness-raising of plant conservation to achieve Target 14. UKOTs have been working with RBG Kew to prioritise activities in order to implement the GSPC and to identify those targets of most relevance locally. The main focus has been in documenting and understanding plant diversity and Targets 1 and 2 are close to completion for most UKOTs with good developments towards Target 3 for many. There is mixed progress with Objective 2 of the GSPC: conserving plant diversity. Excellent progress has been made with the ex situ Target 8, but more limited progress with the in situ targets and plant species still face many threats. Some Territories, most notably the Falkland Islands have made a good start with an Important Plant Areas programme. Although good progress has been made in documenting invasive species, there is major resource investment needed to implement the invasive species control strategies that have been identified. Good progress has been made with Target 14 and awareness is increasing, but there is a definite need for mainstreaming plant conservation issues. Some progress with Objective 5, building capacity for plant conservation, has been made, but a large ‘capacity gap’ remains and more trained personnel are needed with improved facilities and resources in order to implement the GSPC and meet its demanding targets. The GSPC has provided a unifying framework to enable conservation implementation across the UK’s Overseas Territories and will continue to do so in the post-2010 period.

Conservation of some rare and endangered plants from Peninsular Malaysia

Malaysia has approximately 15,000 species of vascular plants. Its flora is distributed between two major geographical regions; Peninsular Malaysia on mainland Asia and the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo. Peninsular Malaysia has over 8,300 plant species and Sabah and Sarawak in a recent estimate have about 12,000 species. Total species endemism for Peninsular Malaysia is about 30%; its tree endemism is 26.3%. For Sabah and Sarawak, the endemism level is higher, recently revised figures gave a tree species endemism of 42.1%. Malaysia has recently published its national strategy for plant conservation, which now forms the basis of conservation activities for the country. Since 2004, we have been running a project entitled “Conservation Monitoring of Rare and Threatened Plants of Peninsular Malaysia”, in which conservation status assessment is scored for a number of families. Results of the assessment of 458 taxa included 46.1% in some threat category. Detailed conservation studies are in progress for 33 species of threatened plants. Initial work on these species include spatial distribution studies at regional level based on herbarium records, and at a more local level, population studies to determine demography of populations. Regular phenological observations were also made for many of the species.

Importance of in vitro technology to future conservation programmes worldwide

The latest IUCN statistics show that of over 12,000 plant species, 70% are threatened, 19% are critically endangered and 28 species are extinct in the wild. Target 8 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) highlights the importance of ex situ conservation of critically endangered plants. Long-term germplasm storage for species with recalcitrant seeds needs alternative measures. In vitro methods complement seed banking and other ex situ measures and are vital for long-term conservation. Conservation Biotechnology at RBG Kew is currently working on a number of rare and threatened recalcitrant species from biodiversity-rich areas of the world to develop good quality in vitro propagules for cryopreservation, recovery and restoration projects. The importance of successful in vitro propagation methods, transplantation technologies, cryopreservation and international networking for the integrated conservation of these species are discussed in detail.

The Development of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh ‘Certificate in Practical Horticulture’

The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE) has a long history of delivering high-quality practical horticultural training within the UK and abroad. In 2007 this training was formalised by the RBGE Education Department into the ‘RBGE Certificate in Practical Horticulture’ (CPH) programme. The vision for the CPH was to create an internationally recognised and standardised, yet flexible and practical horticultural qualification, predominantly, but not exclusively, for the botanic gardens sector. Providing a measurable educational outcome for international development projects is increasing the contribution that RBGE makes to target 15 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. This paper reviews the development of the CPH programme, through its initial conception, the writing of the first course syllabus, the evolution of the course structure and content, up to the course now being offered today. The initial success of the CPH is discussed, detailing the different locations in which the course has been delivered to date and the other gardens that are now offering the CPH themselves. Recent developments are discussed, including the endorsement of the course by Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) and the funding awarded by the Stanley Smith (UK) Horticultural Trust in 2010 for course development. The paper ends by highlighting the future objectives for the CPH, including the development of new and improved tutor and learner support materials, the offering of ‘train the trainer’ programmes that will facilitate the wider uptake of these courses and the vision for the programme to become a benchmark for practical horticultural training worldwide.

In vitro conservation of European bryophytes

The use of in vitro techniques for conservation has been rising steadily since their inclusion in The Convention on Biological Diversity and The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. Unfortunately, bryophytes are often overlooked in conservation initiatives, but they are important in a number of large-scale ecosystem processes, i.e. nutrient, water and carbon cycling. There is a long history of the use of tissue culture in cultivating bryophytes, and many species respond well to in vitro techniques. For 6 yr (2000–2006), The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and the UK statutory conservation agencies supported a project for the ex situ conservation of bryophytes. Living and cryopreserved collections of UK threatened species were successfully established and the cryopreserved collection continues to be maintained. Other in vitro conservation collections are maintained over Europe, at botanic gardens, museums and by individual university researchers, but there is no coherent European collection of bryophytes for conservation, or standardisation of techniques. A major issue for many in vitro collections is the maintenance of within species genetic diversity. Such diversity is considered to be important, as it is the basis by which populations of species can adapt to new conditions and evolve. We are proposing to establish a European network for in vitro conservation of bryophytes. We envisage that this will include living collections, cryopreserved collections and spore collections. Conservation of genetic diversity would be a priority and the collections would provide a valuable resource for conservation initiatives and support research into rare and threatened species.

Important Plant Areas in Italy: From data to mapping

Three hundred and twelve Important Plant Areas (IPAs) have been identified in Italy using a grid-based ranking system to pinpoint areas of high richness and conservation value, alongside the more frequently used expert-based selection of sites. Important Plant Areas are defined as the most important places in the world for wild plant diversity and need to be identified according to common criteria. The main methodological challenges are the lack of recent, easily accessible data for species and habitats and the definition of practical boundaries. The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC–CBD) aims to protect 50% of the most important areas for plant diversity and to conserve in situ 60% of the threatened species by 2010. To measure the extent to which the GSPC targets were fulfilled, we assessed the level of protection afforded to the IPAs and species. We identified 351 top ranking cells, which yielded a total of 312 IPAs, covering approximately 15% of Italy. More than 80% of the IPAs currently have some form of legal protection and over 60% of the selected species are included in the existing protected areas. The method we are proposing may be used where no systematic data collection program exists. The transition from grids to polygons is an “expert-based passage” that exploits different sources of information, such as species point locality data, vegetation maps and expert-based indications. IPAs fit into a wider conservation context and may be applied to the design of ecological networks, the zonation of existing protected areas and the definition of key biodiversity areas.

Saving Europe’s threatened flora: progress towards GSPC Target 8 in Europe

The European flora is of global significance but many species are facing an ever increasing range of threats, especially the growing impacts of climate change. While various estimates have been made for the number of threatened plant species in Europe, an up-to-date European plant Red List does not presently exist. Target 8 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) calls for 60% of threatened plant species to be conserved in ex situ collections by 2010. In the absence of a European plant Red List, it is difficult to monitor progress at the regional level towards this target. To address this gap Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) has developed a consolidated list of European threatened species as a step towards a formal Red List. The database consists of national Red List data from 28 European countries and includes records for over 11,000 taxa. National Red List data were supplemented by information on the critically endangered plants of Europe provided by the Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity and the Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest. A list of regionally threatened species was extracted from the database and screened against BGCI’s database of plants in cultivation in botanic gardens (PlantSearch) and ENSCONET’s (European Native Seed Conservation Network) database of plants conserved in European seed banks. This analysis revealed that 42% of European threatened species are currently included in ex situ conservation programmes in Europe.

Morphological and molecular characterization of Dendrocalamus Strictus Roxb. accessions

The present study was undertaken to study genetic relationships of sixteen accessions of Dendrocalamus strictus Roxb. on the basis of morphological characters and RAPD markers. Considerable variability was found among the accessions analyzed, yet, no significant relationship exhibited between genetic variation estimated by morphological and RAPD characters. The analysis of genetic relationship in Dendrocalamus strictus using morphological and RAPD banding data can be useful for framing plant improvement, conservation and management strategies.

PENCAPAIAN KEBUN RAYA INDONESIA DALAM TARGET 8 GLOBAL STRATEGY FOR PLANT CONSERVATION (GSPC)

Target 8 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) has a very close link to the works of botanic gardens. It highlights the importance of ex situ of threatened plants and their recovery programme. The aim of this paper was to present the Indonesian Botanic Gardens' achievements in implementing Target 8 of the GSPC. It is shown that to date 21.5% of Indonesian threatened plants have already been collected ex situ in Indonesian Botanic Gardens. The reintroduction programme was also initiated. In its 14 th meeting this year, SBSTTA recommended proposal for an updated GSPC (for 2011-2020), in which the Target 8 was changed to At least 75 per cent of threatened plant species in ex situ collections (from formerly 60 per cent). Thus, further work is still needed to increase these achievements.

PHOTOAUTOTROPHIC MICROPROPAGATION SYSTEMS - APPLICATIONS TO CONSERVATION BIOTECHNOLOGY PROGRAMMES

The IUCN updates information on the conservation status of plants which are threatened in their natural habitats. Several species are facing serious threats to their existence due to over collection, alien species, ecological and reproductive constraints. The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation aims to halt the current loss of plant diversitv bv means of conservation measures, training and capacity building. Over 50 percent of the world's plant species are endemic to the 34 biodiversity hotspots. In vitro conservation tools have been an integral part of ex situ conservation initiatives. However conservation practitioners from biodiversity hotspot countries need cost effective, sustainable and simple in vitro plant growing methods to rescue plants of high conservation rating that are facing threat to their existence. Photoautotrophic Micropropagation Systems (PMS) can specifically be of use in the initial stage of culture, rooting and weaning of recalcitrant species. Ventilation, supporting systems, improved illumination and CO 2 enrichment are the significant factors in developing a successful PMS. About twelve threatened plant species were tested for developing PMS in the last four years at the Conservation Biotechnology Unit (CBU), Royal Botanic Garden, Kew. Except for two species, all other species performed better in PMS compared to conventional micropropagation. Plants developed in PMS had leaves with well developed cuticle, stomata and vasculature. Fresh and dry weights of root and shoot systems of PMS derived plants were significantly better than mixotrophic plants. On average less than 50% of the plants survived transplantation following conventional micropropagation, but more than 80% of photoautotrophically grown plants were successfully transplanted. Superior success rate in developing propagules of high quality is very important in species of high conservation rating due to the limited availability of explant material from the wild or ex situ. The techniques outlined here can provide robust propagules of threatened plants required for reintroduction back to the wild and restoration programmes.

PHOTOAUTOTROPHIC MICROPROPAGATION AND ITS RELEVANCE IN THREATENED PLANT CONSERVATION

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) aims to halt the current loss of plant diversity by means of conservation measures, training and capacity building. To achieve the GSPC targets, it is very important to concentrate efforts in areas of the world rich in plant diversity. In the past, in vitro conservation measures have played an integral and successful part in this effort. However, for in vitro conservation by conservation practitioners to be increased in biodiversity hotspot countries, simplified, transferable and accessible methods will need to be developed. This should help to improve the success rate in re-introducing plants back into the wild and in ecological restoration programmes. Plants developed for repatriation and eventual reintroduction projects should be of the highest quality. Myoporum mauritianum and Trochetiopsis ebenus are threatened endemic plants from Mauritius and St Helena respectively. They were selected for a pilot study to investigate the effects of supporting systems and enriched CO 2 supply on their micropropagation. For both species, the photoautotrophic system improved the vigour and quality of the cultures. Plugs made of vermiculite and paper pulp (Florialite ® ) proved to be the better supporting system for both species compared to solidified agar medium. The fresh and dry weights of the roots were significantly higher in plants grown under photoautotrophic conditions with plugs as the supporting system and CO 2 enrichment. Similarly dry weights of the leaves of these two species were significantly better on plugs with CO 2 enrichment compared to mixotrophic cultures with agar as the supporting system. Simplifying in vitro culture and improving success rates are discussed in relation to conservation programmes dealing with recalcitrant plants that have high conservation rating according to the Red List of Threatened plants compiled by IUCN.

Biodiversity and climate change in Kuwait

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the various consequences of climate change on the biodiversity of Kuwait. Many world organizations have established strategic plans for climate change, such as The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, which is adopted in 2002 by the Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity.Design/methodology/approachThe paper utlizes a wide range of research projects completed at the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), which provide information leading to the degradding effects and risks of climate change on the biodiversity and ecosystem services of Kuwait.FindingsThe biodiversity of Kuwait is under severe stress due to natural and anthropogenic factors. The region is also threatened physically and biologically by the global warming phenomena. More severe and harsh climatic conditions will cause increase in formation of sand dunes, sand encroachment, and extreme dust storms. In 2008, Kuwait has the worst ever reported summer since 1991 with increase in intensity and frequency of dust storms. Drought will cause more water demand for local consumption and irrigation. The seawater temperature increase would affect the spawning period of fish and shrimp and would cause migration of fish to other more suitable areas. This would cause severe impact on the fish industry in Kuwait and the region. Losses in plant cover will be due to sand encroachment or erratic rainfall periods causing runoff and flooding.Research limitations/implicationsThe work is based on various projects at the KISR and by some journal publications that relate to climate change impact on biodivesity. More research work is needed to test the long‐term impact of climate change on bidivesity of Kuwait.Originality/valueThere is a need to develop a strategic plan for climate change mitigation and adaptation in Kuwait. Specific elements of the plan would include: research for identification of vulnerable species, collecting field population data, conducting modeling research to inform conservation programs; monitoring key species; ex situ conservation using living collection and ensuring representation in conservation collection; in situ conservation and increase in protected areas; education and public awareness programs; networking; and sharing knowledge.

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: a challenge and opportunity for the international community

In 2002, the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity adopted a Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. This Strategy provided an important new opportunity to focus on the potential loss of tens of thousands of threatened plant species. Here, we briefly describe the development and implementation of the Strategy.

Use of the Biological Flora framework in the United Kingdom Overseas Territories: Euphorbia origanoides L.

The United Kingdom Overseas Territories (UKOTs) are globally important for a high diversity of endemic and threatened plant species but are poorly represented in plant ecological literature. This lack of ecological research is compounded by a lack of funding and skills. Cost effective approaches of compiling conservation relevant information are required. Here we present the first examination of a species from the UKOTs presented within the standard framework of a Biological Flora. This framework allows a convenient way to compile ecological information and assess missing data. The account reviews all available information on Euphorbia origanoides L. (Ascension spurge) from Ascension Island (South Atlantic Ocean) relevant to understanding its ecology and conservation, including soil chemistry, climate and plant community data. E. origanoides is an endemic perennial, found in dry, lava plains of Ascension Island with soils comprised of weathered volcanic scoria. E. origanoides has suffered habitat loss through the introduction of invasive species and survival in the wild is currently under threat. We relate the information gathered for this Biological Flora to the conservation of the species in the wild and propose the framework should be used as one way of compiling information relevant for conservation managers. The framework is beneficial as it allows an evidence-based approach to conservation but also permits the prioritisation of research and can help conservation managers to meet targets for the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation.

野辺山高原におけるサクラソウ湿生群落の構造と植物遷移に関する研究

The present study was conducted to clarify hydrarch community structure on the Nobeyama Plateau and characterize plant succession characteristics over a period of three years. The aim of the study was to develop plant conservation strategies for habitats that support the threatened Primula sieboldii communities. The results of TWINSPAN analysis showed that the study area contained four community types and that identified species could be classified into five species groups. Two community types contained valuable species group that have Primula sieboldii and Viola hirtipes. Sasa nipponica, a species characteristic of dry environments, and Phamnus davurica var. nipponica, a species characteristic of Phamno nipponicae-Alnetumjaponicae ass. nov., increased, and the degree of succession increased particularly well defined in these two communities. In general, while an increase in succession decreases the levels of Therophytes (Th) and Helophytes and Hydrophytes (HH), the degree of the decrease in Th and HH wasn't marked; this observation appears to be a characteristic feature of succession in this community. Although the rate of succession in this community was low relative to other mesic communities, given the marked increase in shrubs over a short period of time, any vegetation management strategy may need employ mowing to remove potential competitors.

Achieving Target 2 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: building a preliminary assessment of vascular plant species using data from herbarium specimens

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation calls for a preliminary assessment of the conservation status of all known plant species by the year 2010. To date insufficient progress has been made on meeting this target. New efforts to develop a preliminary list beyond using the full IUCN criteria in plant assessments are needed. Here we present an algorithm that provides a preliminary assessment of the conservation status of plant species using data from herbarium specimens. We use Hawaiian specimen data from the United States National Herbarium to calibrate the parameters of the algorithm and then use specimen data from the Arecaceae, Commelinaceae, Gesneriaceae and Heliconiaceae as examples of the application of the algorithm. The algorithm was calibrated to insure 95% accuracy in placing the Hawaiian plant species into previously and independently determined threatened categories. Our results indicate that 28% of the Hawaiian taxa, 27% of the species of Arecaceae, 45% of the species of Commelinaceae, 32% of the species of Gesneriaceae, and 35% of the species of Heliconiaceae are NotThreatened and will not need any further evaluation for the preliminary assessment. Species identified here as Potentially Extinct and Potentially Threatened can be further assessed by additional herbarium material and/or conservation specialists for final evaluation using other assessment strategies (e.g., regional and national lists, taxonomic expert assessment, etc.).