Plant-based Complementary Foods Research Articles

Evaluation of nutritional quality of complementary foods formulated from blends of Nigerian yellow maize (Zea mays), soybean (Glycine max) and crayfish (Procambarus clarkii).

Plant-based complementary foods (CFs) supply insufficient amount of nutrients to meet recommended nutrient intakes for 6-23-month-old children. The present study determined the nutritional quality of CFs formulated from blends of Nigerian yellow maize (Zea mays), soybean (Glycine max) and crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). Three CFs were formulated; namely, maize flour (MF, 100:0% w/w), blends of maize and soybean flour (MSF, 72:28% w/w), and maize, soybean and crayfish flour (MSCF, 80:10:10% w/w). Nutritional quality was evaluated using analyses of chemical composition of CFs and of protein quality of complementary food diets. Data were compared by multivariate analysis of variance and significantly differentiated. Nine selected nutritional criteria were used to decide the CF that had best nutritional characteristics compared to MF and fortified wheat flour (FWMF). Total scores obtained from the selected nutritional criteria ranked MSCF, with total score of 15, as the lowest and thus it was considered to have the most desirable nutritional characteristics compared to MF, MSF and FWMF, which had respective total scores of 31, 22 and 20. Conclusively, MSCF may serve as a better alternative CF for MF, MSC and FWMF. The present study has produced a potential alternative cost-effective and adequate CF, formulated from crayfish (P.clarkii) supplementation of locally available blend of yellow maize (Z.mays) and soybean (G.max), for the poor human population, aiming to encourage the consumption of animal-sourced CF for alleviating the prevalence of childhood undernutrition. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Fortification as an effective strategy to bridge iron gaps during complementary feeding

Micronutrient deficiencies (MNDs) during early life are associated with adverse outcomes. Globally, iron deficiency is the most common MND and is particularly common in the first two years of life. Iron is crucial for neurodevelopment, cognition, and immunity. The composition of complementary feeds influences the overall health of an infant. Plant-based complementary foods do not provide enough iron to meet the nutrient needs during 6–23 months of age. Furthermore, the quantities of animal-source foods given to infants are generally inadequate to meet the iron gap. To address this issue, the use of iron-fortified complementary foods should be promoted.

Influence of Soaking and Germination on the Iron, Phytate and Phenolic Contents of Maize Used for Complementary Feeding in Rural Tanzania

Introduction: In developing countries including Tanzania, complementary foods fed to children are often carbohydrate-based and lack sufficient protein, energy, vitamins and micronutrients. Evidence suggests that the iron contained in foods such as cereals is not fully absorbed and will collect in the colon with the possibility of free radical generation and intestinal inflammation. Plant-based complementary foods have been reported to contain high levels of phytate and phenolic compounds, which impact on iron bioavailability. Phenolic compounds have an inhibitory effect on non-heme iron, making it unavailable for absorption in the intestinal tract. Traditional processing technologies (soaking and germination) are widely used in the Iringa District for making local ‘brews’. Objective: The objective of the study was to determine the influence of soaking and germination on the iron, phytate and phenolic contents of maize used for complementary feeding in rural Tanzania. Materials and Methods: Maize grains collected from five Wards in the Iringa District were soaked in distilled water, drained and germinated at 0, 36, 48 and 72 hours then processed into flour. Iron, phytate and phenolic contents were analyzed. Results: Iron content fluctuated with germination time, however a significant (P < 0.05) increase was observed at the 72-hour. Significant (p < 0.05) reductions in the mean phytate contents of the samples (ranging from 8.3 to 34.1% reductions) were observed at the 72-hour germination time. Phenolic contents increased with germination time; there was a significant (P < 0.05) increase at the 72-hour germination time for the samples from all locations. Increases in phenolic contents in the soaked germinated maize ranged from 76.7 to 86.3%. Conclusion: The processing technologies of soaking and germination commonly used in the Iringa District for making local ‘brews’ could be utilized to enhance the nutritional properties of complementary foods used by infants and young children. An awareness and education program to inform community members about transferring this technology and its usefulness to complementary feeding is recommended.

Complementary Feeding: Review of Recommendations, Feeding Practices, and Adequacy of Homemade Complementary Food Preparations in Developing Countries – Lessons from Ethiopia

Breastfeeding provides the ideal food during the first 6 months of life. Complementary feeding starts when breast milk is no longer sufficient by itself, where the target age is for 6–23 months. The gap between nutritional requirement and amount obtained from breast milk increases with age. For energy, 200, 300, and 550 kcal per day is expected to be covered by complementary foods at 6–8, 9–11, and 12–23 months, respectively. In addition, the complementary foods must provide relatively large proportions of micronutrients such as iron, zinc, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, and vitamin B6. In several parts of the developing world, complementary feeding continues as a challenge to good nutrition in children. In Ethiopia, only 4.2% of breastfed children of 6–23 months of age have a minimum acceptable diet. The gaps are mostly attributed to either poor dietary quality or poor feeding practices, if not both. Commercial fortified foods are often beyond the reach of the poor. Thus, homemade complementary foods remain commonly used. Even when based on an improved recipe, however, unfortified plant-based complementary foods provide insufficient key micronutrients (especially, iron, zinc, and calcium) during the age of 6–23 months. Thus, this review assessed complementary feeding practice and recommendation and reviewed the level of adequacy of homemade complementary foods.

Selecting desirable micronutrient fortificants for plant-based complementary foods for infants and young children in low-income countries.

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that both breast-fed and non-breast-fed children are fed micronutrient fortified complementary foods designed to meet their high nutrient requirements from aged 6 to 23 months of age. This paper summarises the steps recommended by WHO/FAO to identify the country-specific micronutrient shortfalls in complementary diets and establish desirable levels of bioavailable fortificants for centrally processed plant-based complementary foods for infant and young child feeding. The goal of the WHO/FAO guidelines is to achieve a desirably low prevalence of inadequate micronutrient intakes in the target group whilst simultaneously ensuring minimal risk of excessive intakes.

Complementary food blends and malnutrition among infants in Ghana: A review and a proposed solution

Widespread malnutrition among Ghanaian infants could be attributed to unfortified plant-based complementary foods commonly used at the household level. This review summarises the publications on the development of complementary food blends and intervention trials aimed at improving the nutritional status of Ghanaian infants. The complementary food blends are cereal-based which are developed from maize (in higher proportion) together with soyabean, cowpea and/or groundnut-an effort to improve protein and energy levels. The cereal-legume blends affect growth more positively than cereal-only formulations but not micronutrient status unless fortified with micronutrients. The low level of micronutrients (including vitamin A) and the high phytate content of cereal-legume blends partly account for micronutrient deficiencies. Phytate limits the bioavailability of nutrients such as iron, calcium and zinc. We propose an alternative complementary food blend which is based on sweet potato. This proposed formulation would be relatively high in endogenous β-carotene (vitamin A precursor) and low in phytate compared to household-level cereal-based complementary foods. Key words: Cereal-legume, complementary food, Ghana, malnutrition, phytate, sweet potato.

Complementary food blends and malnutrition among infants in Ghana: A review and a proposed solution

Widespread malnutrition among Ghanaian infants could be attributed to unfortified plant-based complementary foods commonly used at the household level. This review summarises the publications on the development of complementary food blends and intervention trials aimed at improving the nutritional status of Ghanaian infants. The complementary food blends are cereal-based which are developed from maize (in higher proportion) together with soyabean, cowpea and/or groundnut-an effort to improve protein and energy levels. The cereal-legume blends affect growth more positively than cereal-only formulations but not micronutrient status unless fortified with micronutrients. The low level of micronutrients (including vitamin A) and the high phytate content of cereal-legume blends partly account for micronutrient deficiencies. Phytate limits the bioavailability of nutrients such as iron, calcium and zinc. We propose an alternative complementary food blend which is based on sweet potato. This proposed formulation would be relatively high in endogenous β-carotene (vitamin A precursor) and low in phytate compared to household-level cereal-based complementary foods. Key words: Cereal-legume, complementary food, Ghana, malnutrition, phytate, sweet potato.

A household‐level sweet potato‐based infant food to complement vitamin A supplementation initiatives

Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) prevalence in Sub-Saharan Africa is high in spite of vitamin A supplementation programmes among children in most countries. Plant-based complementary foods remain the key source of nutrients in addition to breast milk for infants in lower income countries. Cereal-legume blends are superior in protein and energy densities compared with maize, millet or sorghum-only porridge. However, unfortified cereal-legume and cereal-only porridges are low in vitamin A. A household-level sweet potato-based infant food, rich in vitamin A, has been developed to complement vitamin A supplementation initiatives in Sub-Saharan Africa. A composite flour containing sweet potato, soybean, soybean oil and fishmeal was processed as complementary food by oven toasting (denoted oven-toasted ComFa). The oven-toasted ComFa and enriched Weanimix (processed from dehulled maize, dehulled soybean, groundnut and fishmeal) were assessed for suitability as complementary food based on the nutrient composition using specifications in the Codex Standard (CS) as a reference. The sweet potato-based formulation and enriched Weanimix met the energy, protein, fructose and fat specifications but barely met the amino acid score as indicated in the CS. However, only the oven-toasted ComFa met the calcium and almost half the vitamin A levels as specified in the CS. Oven-toasted ComFa was slightly lower in energy, protein and fat by a difference not greater than 4.0% but was higher by more than 100% in fructose and vitamin A levels. Therefore, the sweet potato-based complementary food is likely to support vitamin A supplementation initiatives in low-income countries better than the cereal-based formulation.

A Review of Phytate, Iron, Zinc, and Calcium Concentrations in Plant-Based Complementary Foods Used in Low-Income Countries and Implications for Bioavailability

Plant-based complementary foods often contain high levels of phytate, a potent inhibitor of iron, zinc, and calcium absorption. This review summarizes the concentrations of phytate (as hexa- and penta-inositol phosphate), iron, zinc, and calcium and the corresponding phytate:mineral molar ratios in 26 indigenous and 27 commercially processed plant-based complementary foods sold in low-income countries. Phytate concentrations were highest in complementary foods based on unrefined cereals and legumes (approximately 600 mg/100 g dry weight), followed by refined cereals (approximately 100 mg/100 g dry weight) and then starchy roots and tubers (< 20 mg/100 g dry weight); mineral concentrations followed the same trend. Sixty-two percent (16/26) of the indigenous and 37% (10/27) of the processed complementary foods had at least two phytate:mineral molar ratios (used to estimate relative mineral bioavailability) that exceeded suggested desirable levels for mineral absorption (i.e., phytate:iron < 1, phytate:zinc < 18, phytate:calcium < 0.17). Desirable molar ratios for phytate:iron, phytate:zinc, and phytate:calcium were achieved for 25%, 70%, and 57%, respectively, of the complementary foods presented, often through enrichment with animal-source foods and/or fortification with minerals. Dephytinization, either in the household or commercially, can potentially enhance mineral absorption in high-phytate complementary foods, although probably not enough to overcome the shortfalls in iron, zinc, and calcium content of plant-based complementary foods used in low-income countries. Instead, to ensure the World Health Organization estimated needs for these minerals from plant-based complementary foods for breastfed infants are met, dephytinization must be combined with enrichment with animal-source foods and/or fortification with appropriate levels and forms of mineral fortificants.

Approaches to Improve Iron Bioavailability from Complementary Foods

The importance of trace element bioavailability in the etiology of nutritional deficiencies, for example in the etiology of iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia, can be expected to be most pronounced in individuals with high requirements. Of special concern is the situation in poor communities where infants and young children are consuming monotonous, cereal-based diets. Traditionally, cereal-based gruels are often one of the first semisolid foods to be introduced into the infant's diet. These foods can be expected to have low energy and nutrient density as well as low bioavailability of iron due to the presence of phytic acid. Ascorbic acid is a potent enhancer of non-heme iron absorption that can overcome the inhibiting effect of phytic acid when present in high enough quantities. However, home prepared complementary foods based on cereals and legumes contain negligible amounts of ascorbic acid unless ascorbic acid-rich foods are mixed with the cereal or consumed at the same time. Different approaches to improve iron bioavailability from plant-based complementary foods, e.g., by enzymatic degradation of phytic acid and/or by increased consumption of ascorbic acid-rich foods, should be explored and adapted to local conditions. In addition, there is a need to evaluate efficacy and effectiveness of strategies to increase the dietary intake of bioavailable iron by dietary diversification and food fortification under realistic conditions.

Household-level technologies to improve the availability and preparation of adequate and safe complementary foods.

Plant-based complementary foods are the main source of nutrients for many young children in developing countries. They may, however, present problems in providing nutritionally adequate and safe diets for older infants and young children. The high starch content leads to low-nutrient diets that are bulky and dense, with high levels of antinutritive factors such as phytates, tannins, lectins, and enzyme inhibitors. Phytates impair mineral bioavailability, lectins interfere with intestinal structure, and enzyme inhibitors inhibit digestive enzymes. In addition, there is often microbial contamination, which leads to diarrhea, growth-faltering, and impaired development, and the presence of chemical contaminants may lead to neurological disease and goiter. The fact that some fruits containing carotenoids are only available seasonally contributes to the vulnerability of children receiving predominantly plant-based diets. Traditional household food technologies have been used for centuries to improve the quality and safety of complementary foods. These include dehulling, peeling, soaking, germination, fermentation, and drying. While modern communities tend to reject these technologies in favor of more convenient fast-food preparations, there is now a resurgence of interest in older technologies as a possible means of improving the quality and safety of complementary foods when the basic diet cannot be changed for economic reasons. This paper describes the biology, safety, practicability, and acceptability of these traditional processes at the household or community level, as well as the gaps in research, so that more effective policies and programs can be implemented to improve the quality and safety of complementary foods.

Complementary foods for infant feeding in developing countries: their nutrient adequacy and improvement.

To assess the energy and nutrient adequacy of a variety of complementary foods used in parts of Africa, India, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and Thailand. The energy, nutrient and anti-nutrient (dietary fibre and phytic acid) content (per 100 g as eaten, per 100 kcal, and per day) of twenty-three plant-based complementary foods consumed in developing countries was calculated from food composition values based on chemical analysis for the trace minerals, non-starch polysaccharide and phytic acid, and the literature. Results were compared with the estimated nutrient needs (per day; per 100 kcal) from complementary foods for infants 9-11 months, assuming a breast milk intake of average volume and composition and three complementary feedings per day, each of 250 g. Complementary foods should provide approximately 25-50% of total daily requirements for protein, riboflavin and copper; 50-75% for thiamin, calcium and manganese; and 75-100% for phosphorus, zinc and iron. Most or all appear to meet the estimated daily nutrient needs (per day; per 100 kcal) from complementary foods for protein, thiamin and copper (per day), but not for calcium, iron, and in some cases zinc, even if moderate bioavailability for iron and zinc is assumed. Some of those based on rice are also inadequate in riboflavin (per day; per 100 kcal). Even if strategies to improve the bioavailability of iron and zinc are employed, they are probably insufficient to overcome the deficits in calcium, iron and zinc. Therefore, research on the feasibility of fortifying plant-based complementary foods in developing countries with calcium, iron and zinc is urgently required.