Planet Mercury Research Articles

The Astronomical Observatory of the Abbot de Beauchamp in Baghdad

Abstract In 1786, the Abbé Joseph de Beauchamp, vicar general of the bishopric of Babylon, vice-consul in Baghdad and correspondent of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris, completed the description of the astronomical observatory he had installed on a terrace of the house of the Missionary Fathers of the Congregation of the Faith in Baghdad. A crossroads between Parisian and Middle Eastern astronomical practice, between scholarly, religious and diplomatic networks in France and abroad, Beauchamp’s observatory was destroyed by the wind in 1783, then carefully reconstructed and well equipped with observation and measurement instruments received from France. The notes, descriptions and detailed drawings carefully recorded by the astronomer explain the organization of this learned space, the function, construction and operation of each of the elements for the various types of observations (stars, the Sun and the planet Mercury, in particular) made within it.

LONEStar: The Lunar Flashlight Optical Navigation Experiment

This paper documents the results from the highly successful Lunar flashlight Optical Navigation Experiment with a Star tracker (LONEStar). Launched in December 2022, Lunar Flashlight (LF) was a NASA-funded technology demonstration mission. After a propulsion system anomaly prevented capture in lunar orbit, LF was ejected from the Earth-Moon system and into heliocentric space. NASA subsequently transferred ownership of LF to Georgia Tech to conduct an unfunded extended mission to demonstrate further advanced technology objectives, including LONEStar. From August to December 2023, the LONEStar team performed on-orbit calibration of the optical instrument and a number of different OPNAV experiments. This campaign included the processing of nearly 400 images of star fields, Earth and Moon, and four other planets (Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn). LONEStar provided the first on-orbit demonstrations of heliocentric navigation using only optical observations of planets. Of special note is the successful in-flight demonstration of (1) instantaneous triangulation with simultaneous sightings of two planets with the LOST algorithm and (2) dynamic triangulation with sequential sightings of multiple planets.

The formation of volatile‐bearing djerfisherite in reduced meteorites

AbstractEnstatite meteorites, both aubrites and enstatite chondrites, formed under exceptionally reducing conditions, similar to the planet Mercury. Despite being reduced, the MESSENGER mission showed that the surface of Mercury is more enriched in volatiles (e.g., S, Na, K, Cl) than previously thought. To better understand the mineral hosts of these volatiles and how they formed, this work examines the chemistry and petrographic settings of a rare, K‐bearing sulfide called djerfisherite within enstatite chondrites and aubrites. The petrographic settings of djerfisherite within aubrites suggest this critical host of Cl formed after both the crystallization of troilite and exsolution of daubréelite. Djerfisherite is commonly observed as a rim on other sulfides and in contact with metal. We present an alteration model for djerfisherite formation in aubrite meteorites, whereby troilite and Fe‐Ni metal are altered through anhydrous, alkali‐ and Cl‐rich fluid metasomatism on the aubrite parent body to produce secondary djerfisherite. Moreover, we observe a loss of volatiles in djerfisherite within impact melted regions of the Miller Range 07139 EH3 chondrite and the Bishopville aubrite and explore the potential for impact devolatilization changes to sulfide chemistry on other reduced bodies in the Solar System. Vapor or fluid phase interactions are likely important in the formation of volatile‐rich phases in reduced systems. While most Na and K on the mercurian surface is expected to be hosted in feldspar, djerfisherite is likely a minor, but critical, reservoir for K, Na, and Cl. Djerfisherite present on reduced bodies, such as Mercury, may represent sulfides formed via late‐stage, primary metasomatism.

About Newton’s Law of Gravitation and the Energy Momentum Relations

Newtonian dynamics was based on the assumption of instantaneous propagation of interaction. Roamer’s studies showed that the velocity of interaction cannot exceed the velocity of light in free space. (c=3x108 mps). Lorentz’ electron theory and electrodynamics take this fact into account. It is possible to rectify the defects of Newtonian theory by deriving Maxwell-Lorentz equations and the Lorentz Force equation for the gravitational field and hence the modified Newtonian dynamics can explain (i) The Perihelion Shift of the orbit of the Planet Mercury (ii) Deflection of light by the Sun (iii) The Gravitational Redshift [1]. It is shown that the use of centre of mass coordinate system also implies a non-elliptic orbit in general, so that the inverse square law of Newton/Coulomb is always valid. Next, the energy and momentum of a dynamical system are shown to satisfy Finally, the Schrodinger’s wave function is interpreted as a quantum mechanical energy density [2].

The Newton-Stefan-Boltzmann-Planck Code. The Solar Microwave Background Formation on the Blackbody Sphere at the Distance R = 140 AU

In this model the Solar System presented to observers on the planet Earth the elegant gift: the Solar Microwave Background (SMB) formed on the Blackbody Sphere at the distance R = 140 AU. The thermalization of the Hydrogen wall at this distance was described using the Stefan-Boltzmann law where the temperature of the blackbody at the distance R = 1 AU is T = 393.6 K. Newton’s cooling law described the cooling of this blackbody surface temperature with the cooling constant κ = 1.139 × 10−4 s−1 calculated from data of the small planet Pluto (average distance R = 39.5 AU and the temperature T = 44 K). The SMB monopole temperature T = 2.7255 K was fitted for the distance R = 140 AU with the temperature of the surrounding TENV = 2.5887 K. The first important difference with the model of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) is the magnitude and direction of Newton’s dipole v = (200 + 141) kms−1 towards the galactic coordinates (l, b) = (84°, −48°) while the magnitude and the direction of the Doppler’s dipole of CMB is v = 368 kms−1 towards (l, b) = (264°, 48°). This new model enables to estimate the rotation velocity of the Sun in the Milky Way Galaxy, the motion of the Milky Way Galaxy through the Universe, and the Harress-Sagnac color excess: v = 200 + 141 + 27 = 368 kms−1. The total motion of the Milky Way Galaxy through the Universe can be estimated with the knowledge of the Cold Spot direction in the SMB and the motion towards the Galactic South Pole. In this model, the Milky Way Galaxy can avoid collision with the Andromeda Galaxy. The observed quadrupole, octopole, and hemisphere structure of the SMB can be explained as the local motion of the Sun and the Solar axis inclination towards the ecliptic–the Axis of evil should be renamed as the Solar axis bringing to us a good opportunity to discover differences between the SMB and the CMB. The first peak in the power spectrum of the SMB at the distance R = 140 AU is observed from the COBE, WMAP, and PLANCK satellites rotating around the Sun at the distance R = (2×1) AU under the angle θ = 0.818°. The power spectrum observed from the planets Mercury and Jupiter will have different positions of the first and higher peaks. The original Solar signature should be visible as the moving shadows of the Sunspots on the Blackbody Sphere. There were proposed several experiments on how to distinguish between the SMB and the CMB.

Visualization of Mercury's Orbital Path Around the Sun Using Matlab for Astronomic Distance Learning

Abstract: Physical phenomena occurring at both macro and micro scales are often beyond direct observation by the human senses. This study aims to present an alternative astronomical learning activity about the orbital trajectory of the planet Mercury around the Sun using MATLAB assistance. Visualization of the orbital trajectory of Mercury begins by describing the appropriate mathematical equations. Subsequently, these equations are translated into graphical representations using MATLAB for visualization. In this study, students can visualize the orbital trajectory of Mercury around the Sun using MATLAB by varying the components of the coordinate equation. Through this visualization, it is hoped that it can help students understand the movement of Mercury around the Sun in its orbit independently and creatively. Students can also develop mathematical representation skills and visual representations of the orbital trajectory of Mercury around the Sun. Keywords: Astronomic, Distance Learning, MATLAB, Mercury, Orbit.

On the influence of the dark substance on electromagnetic radiation in space

This paper investigates the influence of the gravitational fields of dark matter and dark energy, the existence of which is currently firmly established, on electromagnetic radiation in space. In the post-Newtonian approximation of the general theory of relativity, a regularity is derived that generalizes the well-known Shapiro time delay (Shapiro effect) to estimate the delay of a light beam during the Mercury location. The generalization consists of the fact that in addition to the gravitational field of the central mass, the influence of the gravitational fields of the visible (observed) medium and dark substance on the processes in space is taken into account. The cases of location of the planet Mercury and the star near the center of our Galaxy in gravitational fields created by a spherically symmetrically distributed medium are considered. Estimates of the delays of location signals are calculated, which can exceed the time delays of signals in a space not filled with a medium by several orders of magnitude. A method for estimating the density of a dark substance is indicated if the experimental estimate of the location signal delay is known. This method is illustrated by the location of Mercury as an example.

Measuring the elliptical form of the Moon’s terminator curve and its illuminated area by direct and indirect methods

Because solar light, from Earth perspective, a curve is drawn in Moon’s surface that separates its dark side from the illuminated one. This curve is known as the terminator curve. In this article we prove, using direct and indirect methods, that the terminator curve corresponds to an ellipse. This is demonstrated using mathematical concepts and photographs of the Moon that are analysed with a geometrical software. Using this information, we also show how to calculate the illuminated fraction area of the Moon depending on its day of rotation. We obtain excellent approximations regarding the values given by computational systems. We discuss the results of considering the Moon as a flat disk or like a sphere. We analyse the technical difficulties of the process and the mathematical tools needed for more precise calculations. We also put in context this demonstration of the ellipticity of the terminator curve for any interior planet illuminated by a central star of any planetary system, seen from a outsider planet, the case in which the phases are more noticeable. Finally we extend the previous calculations to analyse the illuminated percentage of the inner planets Mercury and Venus, obtaining excellent results in the case of Venus.

Solar-wind electron precipitation on weakly magnetized bodies: The planet Mercury

Rocky objects in the Solar System (such as planets, asteroids, moons, and comets) undergo a complex interaction with the flow of magnetized, supersonic plasma emitted from the Sun called solar wind. We address the interaction of such a flow with the planet Mercury, considered here as the archetype of a weakly magnetized, airless, telluric body immersed in the solar wind. Due to the lack of dense atmosphere, a considerable fraction of solar-wind particles precipitate on Mercury. The interaction processes between precipitating electrons and other nonionized parts of the system remain poorly understood. Shading light on such processes is the goal of this work. Using a 3D fully kinetic self-consistent plasma model, we show for the first time that solar-wind electron precipitation drives (i) efficient ionization of multiple neutral exosphere species and (ii) emission of X-rays from the surface of the planet. We conclude that, compared to photoionization, electron-impact ionization should not be considered a secondary process for the H, He, O, and Mn exosphere. Moreover, we provide the first, independent evidence of X-ray aurora-like emission on Mercury using a numerical approach.

Planetary nodes and apses in the Sūrya-Siddhānta

There are a few aspects of Indian astronomy that border on the implausible, and none more so than the nodal and apsidal movements of planetary orbits as specified in the Sūrya-Siddhānta. In this paper we examine some aspects of this data in the light of modern astronomy. Given the very-slow rates of motion specified for these two parameters, we speculate that this data might be heliocentric (as opposed to geocentric), and proceed with that assumption in this paper. It is determined that while this assumption proves true for the outer planets (Mars, Jupiter and Saturn), it does not conform well with the inner planets (Mercury and Venus). It is also determined that while the directions specified in the Sūrya-Siddhānta for these subtle motions are correct, the rates of motion given are slower by a couple orders of magnitude compared to actuality. Further analysis also appears to confirm that the data is genuine, and the epoch of the data is likely many thousands of years old.

Relativistic Problem of Two Bodies

This paper presents a developed theory of gravitational interaction of two-point bodies that takes into account the finiteness of the speed of light. The relativistic inertial (or gravitational) mass has been determined. The relativistic force of inertia, whose value is invariant to the Lorentz transformation, has been determined. A generalized form of the law of universal gravitation is presented, such that the gravitating masses in it contain corrective relativistic multipliers. Based on these new definitions, a method similar to that of classical mechanics is used to calculate a relativistic orbit of circulation. A new formula for the angle of displacement of perihelion, which takes into account both the value of the focal parameter and the eccentricity of the orbit, and which for the planet Mercury gives the correct numerical result, has been derived.

Dynamics and Stability of the Two-Body Problem with Yukawa Correction to Newton’s Gravity, Revisited and Applied Numerically to the Solar System

In this manuscript, we review the motion of a two-body celestial system (planet–sun) for a Yukawa-type correction on Newton’s gravitational potential using Hamilton’s formulation. We reexamine the stability using the corresponding linearization Jacobian matrix, and verify that the conditions of Bertrand’s theorem are met for radii ≪1015 m, meaning that bound closed orbits are expected. Applied to the solar system, we present the equation of motion of the planet, then solve it both analytically and numerically. Making use of the analytical expression of the orbit, we estimate the Yukawa strength α and find it to be larger than the nominal value (10−8) adopted in previous studies, in that it is of order (α=10−4−10−5) for the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, earth, Mars, and Pluto) and even larger (α=10−3) for the giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune). Taking the inputs (rmin,vmas,e) observed by NASA, we analyse the orbits analytically and numerically for both the estimated and nominal values of α and determine the corresponding trajectories. For each obtained orbit, we recalculate the characterizing parameters (rmin,rmax,a,b,e) and compare their values according to the potential (Newton with/without Yukawa correction) and method (analytical and/or numerical) used. When compared to the observational data, we conclude that the path correction due to Yukawa correction is on the order of up to 80 million km (20 million km) as the maximum deviation occurring for Neptune (Pluto) for a nominal (estimated) value of α.

Did planet Mercury (Budha) exist before lord Rama's time period?

Sage Valmiki in Ramayana, did not mentioned about planet Mercury (Budha). In this article, we have analysed Sage Valmiki’s Bala Kanda slokas, Sundara Kanda slokas, Gomphotheres (Four tusked elephants) timeline, Himalayan mountain timeline, Lord Sri Rama’s birth timeline as per Vayu Purana, situations that lead to the birth of planet Mercury (Budha) in Vayu Purana and Padma Purana, Giant Impact of Earth’s Moon and various Yugas timeline calculations to conclude that, planet Mercury (Budha) did not existed during Lord Rama’s time period.

Memory and magic: magical images for improving memory in medieval image magic and in the 17th century manuscript Sloane 3663

This article explores magical images for improving memory described in Latin textual sources of medieval magic. Memory is a rare theme in the sources. The images associated with memory are included in four sources that represent image magic and/or natural magic: De XV stellis, the Latin Picatrix and Liber Mercurii, the Latin forms of which derive from the 12th and 13th centuries, and in an anomymous text that appears in Rudolph Goclenius the Younger’s medico- magical work printed in 1608 and in the seventeenth century manuscript Sloane 3663 in the British Library, as entitle as Erectio siganturae Mercurii. This article argues that the concept of memory should be understood in the frameworks provided by each text and the tradition of learned magic, which differ from the viewpoints of mnemotechnic. In all cases the context of memory is intellectual: it is associated with mental capacities, intelligence, sciences and arts and with the planet Mercury, the ruler of sciences. The concept of memory is loosely connected to philosophical theories, but in practical level the procedures of fabricating images were dominated by approaches of natural magic and medicine.

Observations of Mercury's Plasma Sheet Horn: Characterization and Contribution to Proton Precipitation

AbstractThe Mercury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry and Ranging (MESSENGER) spacecraft was the first spacecraft to orbit the planet Mercury. Previous analysis of MESSENGER data has established that of all the planets in the solar system, Mercury's magnetosphere is the most like Earth's, dominated by the Dungey cycle in its dynamic response of the magnetosphere to solar wind forcing. In this work, we identify and describe for the first time Mercury's northern plasma sheet horn—a Dungey cycle feature key to plasma precipitation. We find three possible geometries for potential horn observation by MESSENGER and describe a case study of each. Two additional case studies are presented with geometries particularly favorable to estimating plasma precipitation within the horns. Estimates of proton precipitation flux are performed, which show precipitation levels on the order of 107 per cm2 per second, on the same order of magnitude as the estimated proton precipitation flux in the dayside cusp despite the higher average energy of the protons in the horn. Potential paths for future study of the horns are discussed.

Sputtering Behavior of Rough, Polycrystalline Mercury Analogs

The solar wind continuously impacts on rocky bodies in space, eroding their surface, thereby contributing significantly to the exosphere formations. The BepiColombo mission to Mercury will investigate the Hermean exosphere, which makes an understanding of the precise formation processes crucial for evaluation of the acquired data. We therefore developed an experimental setup with two microbalances that allows us to compare the sputter behavior of deposited thin solid layers with that of real mineral samples in the form of pressed powder. In addition, this technique is used to study the angular distribution of the sputtered particles. Using 4 keV He+ and 2 keV Ar+ ions, the sputter behavior of pellets of the minerals enstatite (MgSiO3) and wollastonite (CaSiO3) is studied, because these minerals represent analogs for the surface of the planet Mercury or the Moon. Pellets of powdered enstatite show significantly lower sputter yields than thin amorphous enstatite films prepared by pulsed laser deposition. 3D simulations of sputtering based on surface topography data from atomic force microscopy show that the observed reduction can be explained by the much rougher pellet surface alone. We therefore conclude that sputter yields from amorphous thin films can be applied to surfaces of celestial bodies exposed to ion irradiation, provided the effects of surface roughness, as encountered in realistic materials in space, are adequately accounted for. This also implies that taking surface roughness into account is important for modeling of the interaction of the solar wind with the surface of Mercury.

Updated Photon Scattering Coefficients (g_values) for Mercury’s Exospheric Species

In an optically thin exosphere such as those of Mercury and the Moon, the optically stimulated emissions are directly proportional to the stimulating solar flux. An important quantity in relating measured emission to column abundance in remote-sensing observations is the g_value. The g_value is proportional to the f-value of the emission line and to the solar flux at the emission frequency. The solar flux varies inversely with the heliocentric distance from the Sun, but also with the heliocentric relative velocity of the emitting atom. The heliocentric relative velocity of the planet Mercury varies by ±10 km s−1, however, the atoms may additionally have high velocities relative to the planet owing to high-energy processes or through acceleration caused by radiation pressure. In this paper we extend g_values to heliocentric relative velocities ±50 km s−1. In addition to 12 species for which g_values have been published previously, we have computed g_values for two additional species, Mn and Al, that were discovered in Mercury’s exosphere in the course of the MESSENGER mission. We have not included updated g_values for C or OH, as these were not observed by MESSENGER. In this work, we employ the TSIS-1 hybrid reference solar spectrum for most calculations, with the SOLSTICE data being used in the EUV/far-UV. We note that the method employed here could be extended for application at extrasolar planets and comets, with the solar spectrum substituted by an appropriate stellar spectrum.

Spatial‐temporal modulation in radiation therapy

Spatial‐temporal modulation in radiation therapy

Prediction of research studies status on astrological data using machine learning (ML) classification techniques

Astrology specifies both past action as well as the future prediction which act as the subset of astronomy that have been represented in the Galaxy system. Horoscope chart is an astrological representation which involves the movement of nine planets located in twelve houses with periodic positional movements. Based on the horoscope representation, some of the houses are empty and others might contain one or more planets. Specifically, this research considered the 9thhouse of a horoscope which focuseson individual education and higher studies including research etc.Generally, 4th house signifies the education of the individual person but 9th house is suggested for higher studies and it has been considered for the prosperous and blessed life. Initially, this research involved statistical Analysis of Mercury, 9th place, 9th place planet and 9th place planet from its 9th place (M999) planets which assist to obtain scores of mercury planet and those three 9th place scores. However, the acquired scores from the horoscope of 201 persons have helped to justify manually and provide recommendation but no validation. Therefore, this paper has focused on validating the M999 planets score using ML methods and compared with existing Kala Purusha Thathuva” (KPT).

Pitted-Ground Volcanoes on Mercury

On the planet Mercury, pyroclastic deposits formed by explosive volcanism are developed around rimless volcanic pits that are up to dozens of kilometers in diameters. Some pyroclastic deposits on Mercury, however, host no discernable main eruption centers but feature pitted-ground terrains that each consists of many similar sized and irregularly shaped pits. Individual pits are usually much smaller and shallower than typical volcanoes on Mercury. The origin of these landforms is unknown, but it is indicative of styles of volcanism on Mercury and/or post-volcanic modifications. Here, we investigate the possible origin of these peculiar landforms based on their geological context, morphology, geometry, reflectance spectra, and geophysical background. Reflectance spectra of pyroclastic deposits around such volcanoes are comparable with those erupted from typical volcanic pits on Mercury, suggesting a genetic relation between these pitted-ground terrains with explosive volcanism, and the source magma might have similar compositions. Pitted-ground volcanoes are mainly observed in impact structures, and two cases were formed in high-reflectance smooth plains and channeled lava flows. Most pitted-ground volcanoes are relatively degraded compared with typical volcanoes on Mercury, and some might have been formed in geological recent times judged by both their pristine preservation and crosscutting relationship with impact rays. All pitted-ground volcanoes have unconfined morphology boundaries, and each case is composed by dozens of rimless pits that have similar preservation states and interconnected edges. Such morphological characteristics are unique among volcanic landforms on terrestrial bodies, and they cannot be explained by multiple post-eruption collapses of a main explosive volcano. Pitted-ground volcanoes that are developed in lava flows with the same age have different preservation states, suggesting that the pits were not formed by escape of thermally destabilized volatiles from substrate and subsequent roof collapses. The largest pitted-ground volcano (~3700 km2) is located on the Borealis Planitia, and Bouguer gravity data reveal no larger mass concentration in the subsurface than surrounding terrains, consistent with a paucity of shallow intrusions in the crust of Mercury. Short-term and spatially-clustered explosive eruptions could explain the peculiar morphology and geometry of the pits, suggesting that pits in a given pitted-ground volcano are akin to swarms of monogenetic volcanoes. However, possible magma dynamics for the formation of pitted-ground volcanoes cannot be confirmed until future high-resolution gravity mapping could reveal detailed interior structures beneath these volcanoes. Based on comparative studies with spatially-clustered and similarly aged volcanoes on Earth, we interpret that a combination of pervasive crustal fractures and regional thermal anomaly in the thin mantle of Mercury might have caused such short-term and spatially-clustered explosive eruptions. If this interpretation was true, the heavy degradation state of most pitted-ground volcanoes and the few well-preserved cases are consistent with an overall cooling trend of the mantle, indicating the existence of longstanding heterogeneous thermal structures in the mantle.