Pitcher Filters Research Articles

Tap water filtration and purification usage and their impact on the concentrations of fluoride and other minerals – A community-based study

ObjectiveThis study investigated the prevalence of water filtration and purification system (WFPS) use among residents of central Indiana (USA) and determined the effects of WFPS on the concentrations of fluoride, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium in tap water. MethodsA census-based questionnaire collected data on demographics, water use, and water sources. Participants were also asked to provide water samples from their tap water or the WFPS they used. Water samples were analyzed using ion-specific electrodes (fluoride) and atomic absorption spectrometry (metals). Mineral concentration comparisons between water sources used nonparametric tests; questionnaire associations were testing using correlations, chi-square tests, and nonparametric tests. ResultsOne hundred and one participants completed the study, of which 71 % used some type of WFPS. Blacks were less likely to use WFPS than Asian or White participants (p = 0.045). Those with bachelor's degrees or higher were more likely to use WFPS (p = 0.003). The most used WFPS were pitcher filters (31 %), water softeners (21 %), reverse osmosis systems (11 %), faucet-mounted filters (4 %), and whole-house carbon filters (1 %). Reverse osmosis systems resulted in the lowest mineral concentrations (median, ppm; F-0.08, Ca-2.30, Mg-0.46, Na-4.60, P-0.35). Pitcher filters were largely comparable to unfiltered tap water. Water softeners resulted in the highest sodium concentrations (78.40 ppm). ConclusionA large proportion of study participants use WFPS, with pitcher filters being the most common. Reverse osmosis systems had the most significant impact on reducing mineral levels in tap water, while pitcher filters do not adversely affect mineral concentrations. Clinical SignificanceUnderstanding how different WFPS affect the various minerals in tap water is essential for helping consumers in choosing the right system and for oral care providers to guide patients on water consumption and the need for fluoride supplementation, especially for those at high risk of dental caries.

Tap Water Purification Using Pitcher Filters

Abstract Due to the high risk of exposure to various contaminants in drinking water, pitcher filtration is rapidly growing in popularity worldwide as a cheap and easy method to remove pollutants from drinking water. On the other hand, an evaluation of the real-time performance of pitchers is not possible for usual consumers. This study presents the performance of pitcher filtration in the removal of copper, chlorine, and chloroform from tap drinking water. Pitchers were packed with Aquaphor cartridges JS500, A5, and B25. Experiments were performed with model solutions, which were prepared from hard drinking water (7.5 mval/L, pH=7) spiked with copper, hypochlorite sodium, and chloroform. It was found that pitcher filtration is a very effective method for the removal of pollutants such as heavy metals, chlorine, and disinfectants byproducts. The concentration of copper, chlorine, and chloroform in filtrates did not exceed the maximum admissible values. Cartridges JS500, A5, and B25 reduced chlorine at a comparable level – almost 100%. During the whole experimental period, removal of chloroform was slightly better for JS500 (100%) and A5 (100%) cartridges than for B25 (91.4–97.7%).

Iron Clogging of Lead-Certified Point-of-Use Pitcher Filters

Iron Clogging of Lead-Certified Point-of-Use Pitcher Filters

Effective Point‐of‐Use Filtration for Lead Removal

Key TakeawaysA point‐of‐use (POU) filter program helped the City of Newark, N.J., remove lead from the city's drinking water as a temporary measure while corrosion‐control treatment was applied and lead service lines were removed.Customer education and participation were crucial in the analysis of the POU filter program for lead removal at the tap.Use of faucet filters or pitcher filters (with appropriate maintenance), along with regular flushing, yielded superior lead reduction in Newark.

Factors impacting adoption of point-of-use activated carbon faucet mount water filters

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Point-of-use (POU) water filters are a cost-effective measure for reducing exposure to waterborne lead; yet widespread filter adoption has not been achieved in the United States (U.S.). To promote sustained adoption of POUs, we have to understand the contextual, psychosocial, and technological factors which motivate, facilitate or impede POU adoption. This study aims to identify factors impacting adoption of POU filters through field testing, researcher observations, resident surveys, and consumer reports. METHODS: A mixed-methods study was conducted to collect data via open ended surveys, interviews, and observations before and after a POU field-study (n=25). The study protocol, informed consent procedures and data collection instruments were approved by the Louisiana State University Health Institutional Review Board (IRB #10069). RESULTS:An important contextual factor impacting POU adoption was water quality, specifically, the presence of iron particulates, which resulted in clogged filters. Filters were also reported to be too cumbersome to use, didn’t work, or they were reported to be too expensive. The most widely reported problems were: the flow rate was too slow for daily use (39%), and the filter was too big for convenient use in shallow sinks (33%). There was some incorrect usage as well- 47% ran hot water through the filter. Factors that were important in filter selection were availability of replacement cartridges, and system durability. CONCLUSIONS:Officials promoting POUs during lead in water crises and for routine employment should ensure that POU technologies selected will work effectively under community water quality conditions, and that community supply chains exist. Information should be communicated in plain language format and include visual cues, maintenance instructions, and relevant translations. Residents should be allowed to select from a variety of household-compatible technologies, including pitcher filters; and assistance with POU installation should be offered where needed. KEYWORDS: POU, water filter, consumer survey, Pb, lead, household

Effectiveness of point-of-use and pitcher filters at removing lead phosphate nanoparticles from drinking water

Orthophosphate (PO4) addition is a common corrosion control treatment used to lower lead (Pb) concentrations at the consumer's tap by forming relatively insoluble Pb-phosphate (Pb-PO4) minerals. However, some Pb-PO4 particles that can form in drinking water are mobile nanoparticles (i.e., 0.001-0.1 µm) that have the potential to reach the tap. Point-of-use (POU) or pitcher filters are often used to manage risks during distribution system upsets, when corrosion control treatment is not optimized, or following Pb service line replacements. To abide by industry convention, POU and pitcher filters must be NSF/ANSI-certified for Pb reduction (NSF/ANSI-53) using a test water containing dissolved Pb and large Pb particles. Certification for particulates reduction (NSF/ANSI-42) is done using a test water that contains particles, but not leaded particles. To address the lack of testing for Pb nanoparticles, this study challenged six certified commercially available faucet-mounted POU (3) and pitcher (3) filters with aqueous suspensions of Pb-PO4 nanoparticle. For the water quality investigated, the Pb particles formed ranged between 0.016 and 0.098 µm, based on scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering analysis. These particles represented 98.5% of total Pb in suspension. The total Pb removals were between 44.6 and 65.1% for the POU filters, and between 10.9 and 92.9% for the pitcher filters. The electron microscopy results confirm that Pb-PO4 nanoparticles passed through the filters. The findings can inform future efforts to re-examine the test waters used in the certification challenge tests.

Lead Particle Size Fractionation and Identification in Newark, New Jersey's Drinking Water.

Following a pH reduction in their drinking water over a span of more than 20 years, the City of Newark, New Jersey, has struggled with elevated lead (Pb) release from Pb service lines and domestic plumbing in the zone fed by the Pequannock Water Treatment Plant. In response, Newark initiated orthophosphate addition and provided faucet-mounted point-of-use (POU) filters and pitcher filters certified for Pb and particulate reduction under NSF/ANSI Standards 53 and 42 to residential homes in that zone. Water chemistry analysis and size fractionation sampling were performed at four of these houses. Analysis of the particulate material retained by the fractionation filters revealed that Pb was dominantly present in the water as fine Pb(II) orthophosphate particles. A considerable amount of the particulates occurred as a nanoscale fraction that sometimes passed through the POU faucet or pitcher filtration units. Scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy analyses showed that the nanoparticles (<100 nm) and their aggregates were composed of Pb, phosphorus, and chlorine, which are consistent with pyromorphite, Pb5(PO4)3Cl. Electron diffraction and X-ray analyses supported the presence of hydroxypyromorphite and chloropyromorphite nanoparticles and the size range estimates from the imaging. This research confirmed that nonadherent Pb(II)-orthophosphate nanoparticles were an important form of Pb in drinking water in the Pequannock water quality zone of Newark.

EFFICIENCY ASSESSMENT OF THE ADDITIONAL DRINKING WATER TREATMENT WITH HOUSEHOLD CARTRIDGES

The purpose of this study was to rate the performance of cartridges for commercially available pitcher filters. The design features and composition of cartridge loadings of industrial pitcher filters were studied and a comparative study of their performance in terms of water purification from chlorine, hardness ions and organic compounds was made. It is established that all the studied industrial cartridges are physicochemical analogues and differ only in design parameters, and the main factor that influences the degree of water purification from pollutants is the contact time of water with the cartridge loading. It was also found that the information provided by the industrial cartridge manufacturers about the effectiveness of water purification from impurities is untrue and in fact is overstated. The analysis of information on the work of industrial cartridges showed the possibility of a significant increase in their efficiency by creating optimal operating conditions. Requirements have been formulated, that have to be met by the filter cartridge with the optimal properties and the main variable and constant factors that affect the performance of the cartridges are identified.

Evaluation of metal oxides and activated carbon for lead removal: Kinetics, isotherms, column tests, and the role of co-existing ions

Activated carbon (AC) is commonly used in faucet and pitcher filters for lead (Pb(II)) removal in homes. This study evaluated the Pb(II) removal performance of AC and metal oxides (e.g. Fe(OH)3 and TiO2), as well as the co-existing ions' effect on Pb(II) removal. Results showed that metal oxides had higher adsorption capacity (28.9–51.5 mg/g) than AC (21.2 mg/g). Pb(II) was inner-spherically adsorbed onto both AC and metal oxides surfaces. Among various metal ions, calcium (Ca(II)) demonstrated dramatic effects on Pb(II) removal ability of AC, while it had no effect on Pb(II) adsorption by metal oxides. This difference resulted from the inner- and outer-sphere adsorption of Ca(II) on AC and metal oxides, respectively. The presence of orthophosphate (orth-P) and sulfate enhanced Pb(II) removal by those three adsorbents, whereas carbonate and silicate had negligible effect on Pb(II) adsorption. Interestingly, while the orth-P was usually used as corrosion inhibitor because of the formation of lead-phosphate coprecipitate, we found that the enhanced effect of orth-P on Pb(II) removal was mainly due to the synergistic adsorption. This study provides valuable information for the selection of effective adsorbents for Pb(II) removal and is helpful for understanding the roles of co-existing ions on it.

Effectiveness of table top water pitcher filters to remove arsenic from drinking water

Arsenic contamination of drinking water is a serious threat to the health of hundreds of millions of people worldwide. In the United States ~3 million individuals drink well water that contains arsenic levels above the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 10 μg/L. Several technologies are available to remove arsenic from well water including anion exchange, adsorptive media and reverse osmosis. In addition, bottled water is an alternative to drinking well water contaminated with arsenic. However, there are several drawbacks associated with these approaches including relatively high cost and, in the case of bottled water, the generation of plastic waste. In this study, we tested the ability of five tabletop water pitcher filters to remove arsenic from drinking water. We report that only one tabletop water pitcher filter tested, ZeroWater®, reduced the arsenic concentration, both As3+ and As5+, from 1000 μg/L to < 3 μg/L, well below the MCL. Moreover, the amount of total dissolved solids or competing ions did not affect the ability of the ZeroWater® filter to remove arsenic below the MCL. Thus, the ZeroWater® pitcher filter is a cost effective and short-term solution to remove arsenic from drinking water and its use reduces plastic waste associated with bottled water.

Designing Filtration Systems to Remove Heavy Metals from Water

The electronics industry uses high volumes of heavy metals in its production processes. Many of these heavy metals can end up in water and can be very difficult to remove due to the different forms that the heavy metal can exist in. Special design characteristics should be used to produce filters to remove heavy metals. In this study, we identify the different species of heavy metals and describe a method that has been tested for removing all types of species for heavy metals from water. This filtration technique utilizes multiple layers to ensure the removal of soluble, insoluble and complex species of heavy metals in water. The testing was done with a complex solution of lead according to NSF/American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard 53 for the removal of lead at pH 8.5, using a combination of soluble, particulate and semi-insoluble lead. Filters were compared to standard, commercially available, gravity pitcher filters. The testing showed that the newly designed filter removed over 80 gallons of lead below the drinking water limit, compared to a standard filter which failed immediately. When trying to remove heavy metals from water, special care needs to be used in the design of the system to ensure the removal of all species of heavy metals.

Are interventions to reduce the impact of arsenic contamination of groundwater on human health in developing countries effective? A systematic review

Abstract Background Within developing countries, groundwater provides an alternative drinking source to polluted surface water. However, the presence of arsenic in some groundwater sources has resulted in chronic worldwide poisoning. The aim of this review was to determine the effectiveness of field-based technologies for the removal of arsenic from groundwater in developing countries. Methods A structured search strategy was conducted in a range of databases. Titles, abstracts and full texts were screened using pre-defined inclusion criteria. Included studies were quality appraised prior to data extraction. The primary outcome was the percentage of effluent water samples meeting WHO guidelines for arsenic concentrations (≤0.01 mg/L). Secondary outcomes included: (a) arsenic concentrations in effluent water samples meeting the national guideline limit (≤0.05 mg/L), (b) arsenic concentrations in human tissue, and (c) knowledge and attitudes related to the interventions. Results Fifty-one reports, evaluating 50 different technologies, were included. Sixty-seven percent (n = 34) of studies were conducted in Bangladesh. Fifty of the included reports were appraised as ‘weak’, with one ‘strong’ report of a randomised-controlled trial. In summary, the effectiveness of the oxidation and filtration interventions is poor, while the evidence for coagulation, co-precipitation and filtration, subterranean and membrane and electrolytic methods is mixed. Evidence regarding adsorption and zero valent iron interventions is more persuasive with most results suggesting good evidence of effectiveness (i.e. ≥95% of samples with arsenic concentrations ≤0.01 mg/L). In particular, activated alumina and sono/three-kolshi/gagri/pitcher filters have ≥95% of samples meeting national guidelines. Disappointingly, only one study reports excellent evidence of effectiveness: BRAC (2000) for activated alumina (i.e. ≥95% of samples with arsenic concentrations ≤0.01 mg/L). The success of each technology was highly dependent on context, especially their acceptability to users, a sense of ownership and expectations of women’s roles in society. Conclusions Most studies were poorly conducted and reported. Consequently, although some technologies met national guidelines, the evidence-base for decision-making regarding arsenic mitigation technologies at household- and community-level is weak. To improve this situation, primary research needs to be commissioned with adequate sample sizes, testing the impact of key contextual factors, using valid tools for analysis, and meeting standards for completeness of reporting.

A Randomised Intervention Trial to Assess Two Arsenic Mitigation Options in Bangladesh

TAA2-O-03 Introduction: Arsenic groundwater contamination in Bangladesh warrants immediate remediation. This randomized controlled intervention trial was conducted to determine the effectiveness of 2 possible interventions: dug wells and 3 pitcher filters. Methods: A total of 640 individuals participated: with 218 randomized to the dug well group, 216 to the 3 pitcher group, and 206 to a control group. Baseline information on socio-demographics, water use patterns, history of arsenic exposure, body mass index, and smoking status was collected. Following the activation of the dug wells and 3 pitcher filters, postinterventional compliance surveys were carried out after 1, 6, and 12 months. Water samples from all the dug wells after 1, 6, and 12 months and from the randomly selected 88 3 pitcher filters after 10 months of intervention were collected to test the total arsenic concentration of these interventions. Urine samples were collected from all the participants at baseline, after 1 and 12 months of intervention for total and speciated arsenic concentration. Results: Self-reported compliance with dug wells remained below 20% during the entire 12 months of the study. The compliance with the 3 pitcher filters decreased after 6 months and became similar to the compliance of the dug well group after 12 months. A substantial decrease in urinary arsenic metabolites occurred only among those who were compliant to dug well and 3 pitcher filter after 1 month of intervention as opposed to control participants. However, a persistent reduction in urinary arsenic concentrations was observed only among the dug well users after 12 months of intervention. Discussion and Conclusions: Our results show that a functional dug well could be offered as a long-term alternative to tube wells, but use of this option is likely to be low, unless appropriate behavioral change measures are taken. Our study also demonstrates that arsenic removal technologies such as 3 pitcher filters are an effective option as a short-term measure. The 3 pitcher filters that are not adequately maintained are not an effective option for a year. These arsenic removal technologies may be even harmful in the long-term if the resultant water quality is not properly monitored.