Pitch Of Tone Research Articles

A Study on the Effect of Segments on the Pitch of Tone

A Study on the Effect of Segments on the Pitch of Tone

Computational modeling of interval distributions in tonal space reveals paradigmatic stylistic changes in Western music history

Diachronic stylistic changes in music are to a large extent affected by composers’ different choices, for example regarding the usage of tones, intervals, and harmonies. Analyzing the tonal content of pieces of music and observing them over time is thus informative about large-scale historical changes. In this study, we employ a computational model that formalizes music-theoretic conceptualizations of tonal space, and use it to infer the most likely interval distributions for pieces in a large corpus of music, represented as so-called ‘bags of tonal pitch classes’. Our results show that tonal interval relations become increasingly complex, that the interval of the perfect fifth dominates compositions for centuries, and that one can observe a stark increase in the usage of major and minor thirds during the 19th century, which coincides with the emergence of extended tonality. In complementing prior research on the historical evolution of tonality, our study thus demonstrates how example-based music theory can be informed by quantitative analyses of large corpora and computational models.

The Critical Discourse Analysis of the Two Persian Translations of the Hunchback of Notre-Dame Based on Farahzad’s Translation Quality Assessment Model (2009)

The current study attempted to examine the two translated texts by Parsayar, and Mohebi, that is, the Persian translation of the Novel, Hunch back of Notredame by Victor Hugo. This study was performed based on Farahzad’s (2009) dimensional model of CDA. The process followed the strategies of Venuty, Ivir, and the study employed strategies, under the theoretical framework, the model of Farahzad, to examine ideological implication, and manipulation conveyed in translation text. To this end, researcher zoomed the corpus, picked the lexicons, structure, phrases and verbs. To this end, four-chapters of the novel were randomly selected for the current study. The researcher got into them precisely to unveil the burden of ideological implication of words, phrases, even specific cultural bond as Farahzad called it micro level. The case was followed by other level called macro, the area of socio-cultural and political issue. Based on this point of view, the two translators used the specific translation strategies. The commonly used ones, by Mohebi (2016) were substitution, domestication, and addition in a discursive and connotation way. In parallel, Parsayar (2022) had focused more on denotation and aesthetic texts. The study tried to unveil the ideological implication at the level of the degree of excitement, tone pitch, and appropriate verb and noun that befit to their own position in the context. The findings revealed some ideological manipulation of the target text, the manipulation resulted from external, and internal variables including social standing, religion, and some extracted based on unsuitable translation strategy. Ultimately, the findings of this study have some implications applicable not only in the political and cultural aspects, but they can also be utilized for teachers and students in translation studies.

Tones shape notes: The realization of lexical tones in Chaozhou songs

In tone languages where pitch is used to distinguish word meanings, questions arise about how tonal pitch is preserved in singing. While most studies focus on tone-melody matching by examining pitch changes between tones/notes, the pitch change of tones realized within individual notes is less investigated. This article explores how singers realized tones when singing in Chaozhou, a Southern Chinese language with a complex tonal system. It used a Chaozhou song containing 10 tonal patterns to collect data from 34 Chaozhou singers. Results show that tones are realized to varying degrees when sung, and pitch range, pitch level, and neighboring pitch of tones appear to be influential factors. Vocal training affected the realization of falling tones /53/ and /42/ by reducing the pitch fall and also affected rising tone /23/ with a larger pitch change being found for non-professional singers than for professionals. However, the singers’ experience of singing in Chaozhou did not greatly affect the tone realization. An effect of the metrical structure was only found for tones /53/ and /42/. In addition, tone sandhi affects tones /53/ and /21/. The analysis also hints at the potential effect of melodic intervals on the pitch change of tones when sung.

Auditory Ensemble Perception (Summary Statistics) for Music Scale Tones by Listeners with and without Absolute Pitch

ABSTRACT Ensemble perception refers to our ability to summarize complex information across individual items in a group. Ensemble perception of pitch in the auditory domain can be achieved remarkably well: listeners can accurately judge whether the pitch corresponding to the mean frequency of a set of six music scale tones is higher or lower than the pitch of a test tone presented after the set. Ensemble perception for music scale tones was performed by absolute pitch (AP) possessors (n = 16) and musically experienced non-AP listeners (n = 14). They performed a set averaging experiment (Experiment 1), and a tone recognition experiment, in which they judged whether an individual tone had been part of the set or not (Experiment 2). AP listeners obtained a significantly higher percentage correct and a smaller just noticeable difference than non-AP listeners when comparing the (average) pitch of the set and the test. Remarkably, though, AP listeners did not significantly outperform non-AP listeners in individual tone recognition. These results suggest that a cognitive tone-labeling strategy, as predominantly used by AP listeners, enhances ensemble perception for music scale tones. Musically experienced non-AP listeners, however, can achieve recognition of individual tones without tone labeling at a very high level as well. Possible strategies used by the listeners in both groups were discussed.

PORÓWNANIE TESTÓW SEKWENCJI CZĘSTOTLIWOŚCI OPARTYCH NA SAMOGŁOSKACH I TONACH

IntroductionThe pitch pattern test (PPT) is a test of temporal ordering in which a subject needs to correctly repeat a sequence of three auditory stimuli comprised of high and low frequencies. Traditionally, tones are used, but here the aim was to develop a PPT using vowels. The tests were done in young adults and a comparison was made between the two methods.Material and methodsThe study involved 40 young adults with normal hearing sensitivity and was done in two phases. Phase I involved the development of a PPT using the vowel /a/, and in Phase II the test was administered. A comparison was made with the PPT based on tones. In both tests, stimuli were delivered monaurally.ResultsAll participants were able to do the PPT using either vowels or tones. No ear or gender effects were observed. However, the mean scores for PPT using tones were notably better than those obtained using vowels.ConclusionsThe present study has developed a PPT using the vowel /a/ and has compared scores with the tonal pitch pattern test. The absence of a ceiling effect in the PPT using a vowel gives it an advantage in terms of potential clinical utility. The strong positive correlation between the PPT using a vowel and the PPT using a tone shows a significant relationship between the two tests in the specific domain of temporal ordering.

Vocal pitch matching in early childhood as a relative cognitive strength among low academic performers

In this study, using some novel measures, we examined vocal pitch matching in 4- and 5-year-old children in transitional kindergarten classrooms and, at two time points, tested relationships between children’s singing pitch accuracy and their classroom grades as well as performance on standardized measures of developing cognitive and academic skills. Consistent with previous studies, children’s grades were strongly correlated with their performance on standardized measures and differed significantly by gender, maternal education, household income and household language. In contrast, vocal pitch matching and tonal pitch processing showed no consistent relationship to grades, standardized tests or sociodemographic variables, and children with lower academic performance showed statistically equivalent pitch singing on average compared to their peers with higher grades. These findings suggest pitch processing and production abilities may be a relative cognitive strength among children doing less well in school, which may be explored for developing programmes to lift their academic performance.

Event-Related Potentials (ERP) evidence of predictive coding account of time perception in the sub-second range oddball tasks

ABSTRACT This paper aims to examine the controversial effects of repetition suppression, predictability, and pitch of an auditory stimulus on its perceived duration and Event-Related Potentials (ERP). Behavioral results indicated that the repetition suppression and pitch increase lead to time overestimation. ERP analysis showed that the amplitude of N1, P2, N2, and P3 components decreased with each repetition of the standard stimulus. Whereas they increased after the oddball stimulus. Furthermore, a significant increase in N1 and N2 amplitude evoked by the unpredictable stimulus was observed. P2 and P3 (occurring about 200ms after the tone onset and offset, respectively) were significantly affected by tone pitch and duration, respectively. The predictive coding theory provides an account for the above effects. Adaptation causes a reduction in the amplitude of all components. At N1 and N2, sensory input information and predictions are compared, but pieces of evidence are accumulated 200ms later at P2 and P3.

Brain functional characterization of response-code conflict in dual-tasking and its modulation by age.

Crosstalk between conflicting response codes contributes to interference in dual-tasking, an effect exacerbated in advanced age. Here, we investigated (i) brain activity correlates of such response-code conflicts, (ii) activity modulations by individual dual-task performance and related cognitive abilities, (iii) task-modulated connectivity within the task network, and (iv) age-related differences in all these aspects. Young and older adults underwent fMRI while responding to the pitch of tones through spatially mapped speeded button presses with one or two hands concurrently. Using opposing stimulus-response mappings between hands, we induced conflict between simultaneously activated response codes. These response-code conflicts elicited activation in key regions of the multiple-demand network. While thalamic and parietal areas of the conflict-related network were modulated by attentional, working-memory and task-switching abilities, efficient conflict resolution in dual-tasking mainly relied on increasing supplementary motor activity. Older adults showed non-compensatory hyperactivity in left superior frontal gyrus, and higher right premotor activity was modulated by working-memory capacity. Finally, connectivity between premotor or parietal seed regions and the conflict-sensitive network was neither conflict-specific nor age-sensitive. Overall, resolving dual-task response-code conflict recruited substantial parts of the multiple-demand network, whose activity and coupling, however, were only little affected by individual differences in task performance or age.

Deviants violating higher-order auditory regularities can become predictive and facilitate behaviour.

The human auditory system is believed to represent regularities inherent in auditory information in internal models. Sounds not matching the standard regularity (deviants) elicit prediction error, alerting the system to information not explainable within currently active models. Here, we examine the widely neglected characteristic of deviants bearing predictive information themselves. In a modified version of the oddball paradigm, using higher-order regularities, we set up different expectations regarding the sound following a deviant. Higher-order regularities were defined by the relation of pitch within tone pairs (rather than absolute pitch of individual tones). In a deviant detection task participants listened to oddball sequences including two deviant types following diametrically opposed rules: one occurred mostly in succession (high repetition probability) and the other mostly in isolation (low repetition probability). Participants in Experiment 1 were not informed (naïve), whereas in Experiment 2 they were made aware of the repetition rules. Response times significantly decreased from first to second deviant when repetition probability was high-albeit more in the presence of explicit rule knowledge. There was no evidence of a facilitation effect when repetition probability was low. Significantly more false alarms occurred in response to standards following high compared with low repetition probability deviants, but only in participants aware of the repetition rules. These findings provide evidence that not only deviants violating lower- but also higher-order regularities can inform predictions about auditory events. More generally, they confirm the utility of this new paradigm to gather further insights into the predictive properties of the human brain.

Dual-tasking while using two languages: Examining the cognitive resource demands of cued and voluntary language production in bilinguals.

The way bilinguals switch languages can differ depending on the context. In cued dual-language environments, bilinguals select a language in response to environmental cues (e.g., a monolingual conversation partner). In voluntary dual-language environments, bilinguals communicating with people who speak the same languages can use their languages more freely. The control demands of these types of language-production contexts, and the costs of language switches, have been argued to differ (Adaptive Control Hypothesis). Here, we used a dual-task paradigm to examine how cued and voluntary bilingual production differ in cognitive resources used. Forty Mandarin-English bilinguals completed two language-switching paradigms as the primary task; one in response to cues and one while using two languages freely. At the same time, they also had to respond to the pitch of tones (secondary task). Response times (RTs) on the secondary task, as well as naming times on the primary task, were shorter under the voluntary- than cued-naming condition. Task workload ratings were also higher under the cued- than voluntary-naming condition. This suggests more attentional resources are needed in a cued-naming context to monitor cues and select languages accordingly. However, the costs associated with switching from one language to the other were similar in both voluntary- and cued-naming contexts. Thus, while cued-naming might be more effortful overall, cued and voluntary switching recruited similar levels of cognitive resources.

In search of the missing resolved harmonics: Neural and behavioral studies of pitch discrimination

The pitch of harmonic complex tones (HCT) plays important roles in speech and music perception and in the perceptual organization of sound. Human listeners rely primarily on the spectral pattern of harmonics individually resolved by the frequency analysis in the cochlea to derive a pitch percept. Yet, evidence for a robust neural representation of resolved harmonics in animal models has been elusive, and some species appear to rely on temporal envelope cues rather than on resolved harmonics to discriminate pitch. We performed both behavioral experiments on pitch discrimination by rabbits and single-unit recordings from the auditory nerve (AN) and inferior colliculus (IC) using HCTs with equal-amplitude harmonics in which the fundamental frequency (F0) was varied over a wide range. We found that rabbits can discriminate the pitch of HCT using the spectral pattern of resolved harmonics for F0s within the range of conspecific vocalizations. Correspondingly, many IC neurons contribute to a rate-place code for the frequencies of resolved harmonics for F0s >500 Hz, and this code is more robust to variations in stimulus level than that found in the AN. A remaining challenge is to identify the neural mechanisms underlying enhanced rate-place coding in IC. [Work supported by NIH-NIDCD DC002258.]

Preparing auditory task switching in a task with overlapping and non-overlapping response sets

We used a variant of cued auditory task switching to investigate task preparation and its relation to response-set overlap. Previous studies found increased interference with overlapping response sets across tasks relative to non-overlapping motor response sets. In the present experiments, participants classified either pitch or loudness of a simple tone as low or high, hence, both tasks were constructed around common underlying integrated semantic categories ranging from low to high. Manual responses overlapped in both category and modality for both tasks in Experiment 1A, whereas each task was related to a specific response category and response modality (manual vs. vocal) in Experiment 1B. Focusing on the manual responses in both experiments, the data showed that non-overlapping response sets (Experiment 1B) resulted in a decreased congruency effect, suggesting reduced response-based crosstalk and thus better task shielding, but at the same time switch costs were increased, suggesting less efficient switching between task sets. Moreover, varying preparation time (cue-stimulus interval, CSI) showed that long CSI led to better performance overall. Our results thus suggest that when non-overlapping response sets share common semantic categories across tasks, there is no general benefit over overlapping response sets.

Effective Features for Finding Chord Interpretation Paths

We humans naturally feel tonality when we hear music, but its actual mechanism is still unknown. There have been many approaches to understand this mechanism, but one promising method is to measure the distance between chords, as was proposed in Tonal Pitch Space (TPS). Although the theory seems theoretically convincing, we could not know which features contribute most and which others are useless in an objective manner. In this study, we try to define a new distance model by clarifying the effective set of features among them. Based on the principle of the shortest distance, which is claimed by TPS, we estimate each distance by optimizing features to obtain the most plausible chord interpretation (i.e., a degree/key pair for a chord name). We propose the set of functions based on these features and we evaluate all simple combinations of them exhaustively. It turns out that accuracies almost max out with around 20 effective parameters in the functions, achieving about 80--90\% accuracy, that outperforms the original TPS. &nbsp

Unraveling the Filled Duration Illusion and its Stability in Repeated Measurements

Interval timing plays an essential role in various types of behavior including perception and production of music. However, subjectively perceived intervals may substantially differ from their objective durations. One of the phenomena, the filled duration illusion (FDI), is well described in the literature; however, there are still many questions to address concerning mechanisms behind this phenomenon. To further unravel the FDI, we asked 61 healthy adults to reproduce the duration of various acoustic stimuli (from 2 to 3 seconds). We used empty intervals (marked by two short tones) and filled intervals: a continuous tone or rhythmical tone sequences in legato or staccato. We demonstrated that the reproduction of empty intervals was shorter than reproduction of all filled intervals, whereas the reproduction of rhythmic intervals was the longest. Therefore, we clearly demonstrated and distinguished both types of the FDI—the sustained sound illusion and the divided time illusion—and documented their test-retest stability in two subsequent measurements. Moreover, we confirmed the effect of tone pitch on the reproduction—higher pitch tones were judged as longer. By testing all the mentioned phenomena in repeated measurements, we demonstrated the stability of the illusions and prepared the ground for an investigation of more complex musical stimuli.

Constraints of attention, stimulus modality, and feature similarity in working memory.

Two of the most important concepts in working memory that differentiate many theories are the role of attention and similarity between items. Investigators have debated whether there is a central, general resource of attention, and whether interference between items depends mostly on their modality and type of code (i.e., verbal/acoustic versus visual/spatial coding) or upon multiple dimensions of feature similarity even within a modality. Here, we examine results from three experiments in which the features of items to be remembered differed for visual objects in color or orientation, or for acoustic objects in noise duration or tone pitch. There were one or two of these sets on a trial and, when there were two sets, the similarity between their features varied: there were sets in different modalities, sets with different feature types within a modality, or sets of the same feature type. One-set trials consistently produced superior performance. For two-set trials, dissimilarity of the sets mattered only when both sets had to be attended, compared with attention to only one set. Feature differences within a modality mattered at least as much as between-modality differences. The findings conflict with what would be expected if modality were the sole organizing principle and support a working memory model in which a capacity-limited attention is constrained by the feature similarity of task-relevant items.

Effect of inharmonicity on pitch perception and subjective tuning of piano tones

The consensus in piano tuning philosophy explains the stretched tuning scale by the inharmonicity of piano strings. This study aimed to examine how variable inharmonicity influences the result of the piano tuning process, compare the tuning curves of aurally tuned pianos with the curves derived from subjective octave enlargement experiments, and evaluate whether the pitches of inharmonic or harmonic versions of the same tone are perceived differently. In addition, the influence of strings of other piano keys on the measured inharmonicity of a single piano string was investigated. The inharmonicity of all individual strings was measured on a Steinway D grand piano. Variable inharmonicity was implemented by additive synthesis with frequency-adjusted sinusoidal partials. Fifteen piano tuners and 18 orchestra musicians participated in the experiments. The results indicate that the inharmonic piano tones produced a keyboard tuning curve similar to the Railsback curve and differed significantly from the harmonic counterpart. The inharmonic tuning curve was reminiscent of the subjective octave enlargement curve. Inharmonic tone pitches were perceived to be higher than harmonic tones up to C ♯ 7. The covibrating strings of the other keys did not exhibit any meaningful effect on the measured inharmonicity of a single string of the played key.

Pitch discrimination is better for synthetic timbre than natural musical instrument timbres despite familiarity.

Pitch discrimination is better for complex tones than pure tones, but how pitch discrimination differs between natural and artificial sounds is not fully understood. This study compared pitch discrimination thresholds for flat-spectrum harmonic complex tones with those for natural sounds played by musical instruments of three different timbres (violin, trumpet, and flute). To investigate whether natural familiarity with sounds of particular timbres affects pitch discrimination thresholds, this study recruited non-musicians and musicians who were trained on one of the three instruments. We found that flautists and trumpeters could discriminate smaller differences in pitch for artificial flat-spectrum tones, despite their unfamiliar timbre, than for sounds played by musical instruments, which are regularly heard in everyday life (particularly by musicians who play those instruments). Furthermore, thresholds were no better for the instrument a musician was trained to play than for other instruments, suggesting that even extensive experience listening to and producing sounds of particular timbres does not reliably improve pitch discrimination thresholds for those timbres. The results show that timbre familiarity provides minimal improvements to auditory acuity, and physical acoustics (e.g., the presence of equal-amplitude harmonics) determine pitch discrimination thresholds more than does experience with natural sounds and timbre-specific training.

Hyper-Sensitivity to Pitch and Poorer Prosody Processing in Adults With Autism: An ERP Study.

Individuals with autism typically experience a range of symptoms, including abnormal sensory sensitivities. However, there are conflicting reports on the sensory profiles that characterize the sensory experience in autism that often depend on the type of stimulus. Here, we examine early auditory processing to simple changes in pitch and later auditory processing of more complex emotional utterances. We measured electroencephalography in 24 adults with autism and 28 controls. First, tones (1046.5Hz/C6, 1108.7Hz/C#6, or 1244.5Hz/D#6) were repeated three times or nine times before the pitch changed. Second, utterances of delight or frustration were repeated three or six times before the emotion changed. In response to the simple pitched tones, the autism group exhibited larger mismatch negativity (MMN) after nine standards compared to controls and produced greater trial-to-trial variability (TTV). In response to the prosodic utterances, the autism group showed smaller P3 responses when delight changed to frustration compared to controls. There was no significant correlation between ERPs to pitch and ERPs to prosody. Together, this suggests that early auditory processing is hyper-sensitive in autism whereas later processing of prosodic information is hypo-sensitive. The impact the different sensory profiles have on perceptual experience in autism may be key to identifying behavioral treatments to reduce symptoms.

The impact of musical training in symbolic and non-symbolic audiovisual judgements of magnitude.

Quantity estimation can be represented in either an analog or symbolic manner and recent evidence now suggests that analog and symbolic representation of quantities interact. Nonetheless, those two representational forms of quantities may be enhanced by convergent multisensory information. Here, we elucidate those interactions using high-density electroencephalography (EEG) and an audiovisual oddball paradigm. Participants were presented simultaneous audiovisual tokens in which the co-varying pitch of tones was combined with the embedded cardinality of dot patterns. Incongruencies were elicited independently from symbolic and non-symbolic modality within the audio-visual percept, violating the newly acquired rule that “the higher the pitch of the tone, the larger the cardinality of the figure.” The effect of neural plasticity in symbolic and non-symbolic numerical representations of quantities was investigated through a cross-sectional design, comparing musicians to musically naïve controls. Individual’s cortical activity was reconstructed and statistically modeled for a predefined time-window of the evoked response (130–170 ms). To summarize, we show that symbolic and non-symbolic processing of magnitudes is re-organized in cortical space, with professional musicians showing altered activity in motor and temporal areas. Thus, we argue that the symbolic representation of quantities is altered through musical training.