Pit Latrines Research Articles

Private Sanitation and Psychosocial Health in Adolescent Girls

Abstract The relationship between access to private sanitation facilities at home and psychosocial development is documented among adolescents aged 12 to 22 in India and Ethiopia. Obtaining access to private sanitation (flush toilets or pit latrines in the household) is associated with significantly higher self-efficacy and self-esteem for adolescent girls but not boys. Associations are stronger for girls who lived in communities with higher overall access to private sanitation, consistent with the hypothesis that relative access may matter more for psychosocial development than absolute access. There was also a significant correlation with improved peer relations for girls in early (age 12 to 15) but not late (age 19 to 22) adolescence. However, there is no evidence that results are operating through improved physical health or parent relationships.

Rural-urban disparities in basic sanitation access among households: a multivariable decomposition analysis of Ethiopian demographic and health survey 2019

IntroductionDisparities in access to basic sanitation services between rural and urban households pose significant challenges to public health and human development. Understanding the determinants contributing to this gap is vital for advancing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and improving environmental and public health through evidence-based interventions.ObjectiveThis study aims to analyze and understand the disparities in access to basic sanitation services between rural and urban households in Ethiopia.MethodsThis study analyzed a sample of 8,663 weighted households, collected using stratified sampling techniques, utilizing the data from the 2019 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS). The primary outcome was basic sanitation access, defined as access to flush or pour-flush systems, septic tanks, pit latrines, or composting toilets. A multivariable decomposition analysis was conducted to identify factors contributing to rural–urban disparities. Statistically significant variables were determined at a p-value of <0.05 with a 95% confidence interval.ResultsThe weighted proportion of basic sanitation access in Ethiopia was 13.78% (95% CI, 12.67–14.96), with significant disparities between rural (6.02%) and urban (27.15%) residents. Endowment factors accounted for 78.9% of this disparity, while behavioral coefficients contributed 22.1%. If the characteristics of respondents in rural and urban households had been similar, significant factors that would have narrowed the gap included the age of the household head (15–35 years), the absence of under-five children, smaller family size, and the attainment of secondary education, reducing the gap by 1.83, 2.07, 5.08, and 3.25%, respectively. Conversely, illiteracy and primary education levels widened the gap between rural and urban access to basic sanitation services by 16.85 and 0.23%, respectively. Additional factors exacerbating the rural–urban disparity included poverty (which widened the gap by 58.71%), residence in pastoralist regions (which widened the gap by 10.10%) or agrarian regions (which widened the gap by 7.03%), and access to water sources located more than 30 min away (which widened the gap by 7.91%).ConclusionSignificant disparities in access to basic sanitation services exist between rural and urban households in Ethiopia. Key factors contributing to these disparities include the age of the household head, education level, family size, region of residence, and water source proximity. Addressing these factors is essential for improving sanitation access and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

The Impact of drinking water source on disease transmission among pastoralists: The Case study of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania

The study examined the impact of drinking water source on disease transmission among pastoralists, using a case study of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) in Tanzania. A total of four villages located in the NCA were sampled and studied, namely: Endulen, Nainokanoka, Kayapus and Meshili. This was a cross-sectional study which deployed questionnaires, direct observation, document reviews and focus group discussions. A total of 396 households participated in the survey. The collected data were analyzed using qualitative data analysis techniques and descriptive statistics such as frequencies. The study findings revealed that unfiltered waterholes shared among humans, livestock and wildlife accounted for 82.1%; indicating that it was the primary source of disease transmission. Other sources of disease transmissions were: the use of untreated tap water, rivers, spring water and rainwater. The factors influencing the use of unfiltered waterholes were limited access to tap water, scarcity of drinking water sources, drought, population increase and tourists. The co-usage of water coupled with lack of latrines suggest fecal contamination of drinking water sources. Women were more susceptible to waterborne diseases as they were more directly engaging in all domestic activities including fetching for water as compared to men. The waterborne diseases affecting pastoralist communities were diarrhea, cholera, skin infection, dysentery, worms and typhoid fever. The study concluded that there is a nexus between shared drinking water sources and the prevalence of high anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) infection rates. It is recommended that the adverse impacts of disease transmission on drinking water sources can be mitigated through increasing supply of tap water, using treated water and encouraging community use of pit latrines.

Water scarcity and its implications on sanitation: A perspective study in an emerging city in Northern Ghana

Water scarcity is a critical global challenge affecting billions of people, particularly in developing regions like sub-Saharan Africa. In Ghana, this issue has become increasingly pronounced, with limited access to clean and safe water posing serious threats to the health and livelihoods of many communities. This study investigated the intricate relationship between water scarcity and accessibility, and the associated implications on sanitation practices in Damongo, a newly created regional capital and an emerging city. The study showed that the area faced evident water scarcity, with a daily per capita water consumption as low as 0.128 m3. Mechanized boreholes emerged as potential solutions, particularly for the 61.2% of respondents experiencing waiting times exceeding 15 min. The economic repercussions were noteworthy, as high water costs impacted livelihoods, emphasizing the need for policy interventions, especially for low-income households. Sanitation challenges are widespread, with 62.8% relying on pit latrines, and 56.1% lacking proper infrastructure. Water and sanitation-related diseases like typhoid and diarrhoea highlight the need for urgent interventions to enhance water quality and sanitation practices. Household water infrastructure analysis revealed diverse, primarily privately owned sources. Gender imbalances persist in water-fetching responsibilities, with 58.2% relying solely on females. Domestic water sources predominantly involved traditional options, potentially exposing residents to unsafe practices. Sanitation maintenance practices and intervals varied, signaling the necessity for comprehensive solutions. Households without toilets resorted to open spaces (43.6%), gutters (29.1%), and public toilets (12.7%), indicating challenges in waste disposal and sanitation facility access. Insights on the health dimension considered uncovering the prevalence of the top five water and sanitation-related diseases for 2022. These included typhoid (24.3%), diarrhoea (30.0%), Cholera (11.7%), Dysentery (14.6%), and Hepatitis (19.3%). These findings suggest the pressing need for improved sanitation and clean water access, as inadequate infrastructure and water scarcity contribute significantly to these health challenges.

Evaluation of Sanitation Technologies Across Sanitation Service Chain in Kericho Town, Kenya

In 2020, over half of the world's population resided in cities, with projections indicating that by 2050, this figure will rise to 70%. Providing adequate sanitation services in urban and peri-urban areas presents significant challenges due to the dense concentration of people, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Poor sanitation practices in these areas can lead to the spread of diseases with high morbidity and mortality rates. The focus of the study was on Kericho town, Kenya, facing a notable sanitation challenge due to dilapidated sewer system and inadequate sanitation facilities . The aim of this study was to evaluate the safety of sanitation technologies used in Kericho Town. Descriptive study design was adopted. Data collection methods included surveys, interviews, and observations, with a sample size of 409 households. The findings revealed that 66.5% of the population relies on pit latrines with slabs, 13.69% use pour/manual flush systems, 11.49% have ventilated improved pit latrines, 8.07% employ automatic cistern flush, and a minimal 0.24% practice open defecation. 25% of population discharged waste directly into the sewerage system whereby 5% were considered safely managed. Additionally, 4% of waste from user interfaces was discharged directly into open ground or open drains. 2% of population used septic tanks connected to soak pits, whereas 6% of population used septic tanks connected to open ground. Sludge from septic tanks, comprising 20%, was delivered to the WWTP by exhausters for further treatment, of which only 20% underwent treatment, with the remainder released untreated into the environment. 49% of the population used lined pits, while 14% used unlined pits. Approximately 20% of faecal sludge from the pits was exhausted, with only 20% of it considered safely treated, and the remainder released into the environment. Notably, open defecation accounted for less than 1% based on the survey findings. Consequently, the current trend in faecal sludge management in Kericho Town posed potential health hazards to the community unless measures such as rehabilitating the existing wastewater treatment plant are implemented.

The level of implementation of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) practices among the public basic schools in Ghana

ABSTRACT Water, sanitation and hygiene practices (WASH) have been a major challenge facing many basic schools in Ghana for many decades. The school authority have made a number of complaints to the Ghana government through the Ministry of Education in relation to the inadequate potable water, sanitation facilities and hygiene practices in basic schools which the government has remained silent on. The aim of this study was to assess the level of implementation of Water, sanitation and hygiene practices in basic schools in the Sunyani East Education Directorate. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected using questionnaires and interviews. The results indicate that hygiene and sanitation facilities available in schools under study included urinals, toilets, handwashing materials and solid waste disposal facilities. It was revealed that wooden slap pit latrine toilet was present in all schools except Methodist school which has cemented slaps. There were absence of toilet rolls, tap facilities and hand washing soap in all schools visited. The pupils fetched water from neighbouring houses and used it. The study recommends that the Parent-Teacher Association, School Management Committee, District Education Directorate and Ghana Education Service should team up to provide these essential facilities to basic schools in Sunyani East.

Composition and Characteristics of Faecal Sludge from Various Onsite Pit Technologies and User Categories in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

This study investigates the composition and characteristics of faecal sludge (FS) from different pit technologies (cesspits, pit latrines, septic tanks) and user categories (commercial, industrial, institutional, and residential) in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, with a view for informed treatment and resource recovery strategies. FS samples exhibited varying concentrations of pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total solids (TS), and volatile solids (VS), COD and nutrients. pH values ranged from 2.83 to 8.41, with no statistically significant differences based on pit technology type or user category. However, the extremely low pH observed in samples from industrial pits suggests possible disposal of industrial chemicals in these sanitation systems. EC levels were notably higher in pit latrines and residential areas, likely due to waste disposal practices in homes, with concentrations 3-5 times above regulatory limits, raising concerns about their impact on treatment effectiveness and re-use potential. TS and VS concentrations also varied, with cesspits showing the highest TS levels and pit latrines exhibiting higher VS, indicating fresher sludge and potential for biogas production, as reflected by a VS/TS ratio ranging from 53.32% to 70.42%. Nutrient analysis revealed elevated levels of phosphate, nitrate and ammonia, particularly in pit latrines and residential pits, highlighting both resource recovery opportunities and challenges for treatment processes. While FS generally fell into the dilute category (TS < 3%), the high concentrations of other parameters underscore the need for a larger treatment footprint per unit volume of FS. The VS/TS ratio suggests that FS is not fully stabilized, indicating potential for further degradation and resource recovery. Additionally, the characteristics of FS suggest potential opportunities for deriving fertilizer and solid fuel. However, ensuring the hygiene of the sludge is crucial for its safe use, particularly in agricultural applications, and further studies are needed to confirm its sanitation.

Assessment of Sanitation Services and Practices among Local Community in West B Municipality in Zanzibar Island, United Republic of Tanzania

Good basic sanitation services and practices are essential in maintaining generally accepted standards for personal hygiene and public health. The objective of this paper is to assess the sanitation services and practices among the local community in West B Municipality in Zanzibar Island, United Republic of Tanzania. The study uses a cross-sectional study design. Raosoft online sample calculator was used to determine the sample size while systematic random sampling was applied to select the respondents. Results show that a substantial proportion of the community uses on-site sanitation systems by which excreta and wastewater are collected and stored in containments within the vicinity, requiring emptying when full. Many toilets have security issues as they lack privacy and user comfort. About 28.8% have unlockable doors, 21.2% have fixed clothing curtains and 3.8% are completely open. In the area, Indian-type squat toilets are dominant (78.75%), followed by traditional pit latrines (20%). A slightly large percentage (55%) of households use motorised but the remaining percentage (45%) use non-motorised means of emptying and transportation. The study further found limited or ineffectual use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) among the sludge workers, thus risking their health and safety. The conveyed sludge waste is usually taken to a designated treatment plant, disposed of in excavated pits or dumped openly in the forest. This implies that sanitation services and practices in West B are inadequate, leading to disease transmission due to environmental pollution. The study recommends compliance with standards and guidelines, awareness and advocacy, technological innovations, stakeholder involvement and research and development on sanitation services and practices.

Characterisation of blackwater from human transportation systems equipped with vacuum toilets and controlled emissions tanks and its impact on solid/liquid separation technologies

The first ever detailed characterisation of blackwater from human transportation systems equipped with vacuum toilets and Controlled Emissions Tanks (CET) revealed a stream that is very concentrated in salts and nutrients when compared to other blackwater sources. Escherichia Coli (E. coli) levels in the blackwater characterised were comparatively lower than the range reported for septic tanks, for example. Suspended solids were significantly lower than the levels found in pit latrines, but closely comparable to those reported for gravity toilets. The average COD of 3566 ± 2049 mg/L was typically lower than in pit latrines and gravity flush toilets. These findings then show that the characteristics of the blackwater from human transportation systems are directly impacted by a combination of the low flush vacuum toilets, storage in the CET, and different behaviour for passengers with increased usage for urination over defecation when compared to common uses of toilets. Such factors collectively dictate the nature of the blackwater and require that a solid/liquid separation technology for further processing is fundamentally robust in operation. The greater solids pulverisation, largely resulting from vacuum flushing combined with the storage environment, reduces the suitability of centrifugal and settling technologies whilst making filtration the most suitable option.

Combining statistical analyses and GIS-based approach for modeling the sanitary boundary of drinking water wells in Yaoundé, Cameroon

In slums and urban areas with unplanned housing such as in the city of Yaounde, Cameroon, poor water quality and inadequate sanitation pose significant health risks. The absence of locally-defined sanitary boundaries, tailored to hydrogeological conditions, hinders effective zoning and land use planning, exacerbating environmental degradation and health hazards. In this study, the sanitary boundary between drinking water wells and sources of pollution in the city of Yaoundé was defined using statistical analysis techniques and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The Groundwater Quality Index (GWQI) and certain significant parameters affecting water quality notably the transmissivity of the aquifer and well depth were used to establish the sanitary boundary equation which was then interpolated in a GIS environment to obtain the sanitary boundary map of the study area. The linear equation deduced from the significant factors was defined to map the health boundaries between wells and pollution sources for a nominal value of the GWQI (GWQI = 25). Of the 112 wells analysed, 37 % had an excellent GWQI, 16 % were good while the remaining 47 % were poor. Statistical analysis showed a strong correlation between the GWQI and significant factors of groundwater pollution, such as the distance between well and pit latrines (r = −0.753), the aquifer transmissivity of the formation (r = 0.671) and the depth of the wells (r = - 0.855) but no correlation with elevation (r = 0.017) and well age (r = 0.090). Linear regression analysis confirmed the association of the GWQI with the main factors of pollution (p ≤ 0.05). A coefficient of determination of R2 = 0.85 was obtained when validating the linear regression plot based on independent data between measured and predicted GWQI. The sanitary boundary map shows that the wells in our study area should be located between 39 m and 370 m, with an average value of 215 m. New regulations on the distance between well and pit latrines are essential to prevent groundwater pollution.

An assessment of latrine front-end characteristics and associated surface E. coli indicated faecal contamination in rural Fiji

In Fiji, 90% of the population has access to basic sanitation; however, there are still persistent health risks from endemic faecal-oral diseases such as typhoid fever. There is a need to assess the contribution of existing sanitation facilities in the faecal pathogen transmission pathway. This study was conducted as part of a larger planetary health study across 29 rural communities within five river catchments. This specific research aimed to characterise latrine front-ends, both infrastructure and usage behaviour, and to assess the faecal contamination levels on various frequently contacted latrine surfaces in rural Fiji. A sanitation survey, along with observation and latrine swab sampling, was conducted in households over three phases: baseline (n = 311) (Aug–Dec 2019), endline (n = 262) (Jun–Sep 2022) and an in-depth front-end study (n = 12) (Oct–Nov 2022). Of 311 households, almost all had pedestal-type latrines, predominately cistern-flush (83%), followed by pour-flush (13%), and then hole-type (pit) latrines (4%). Washable latrine floors had significantly higher E. coli densities (6.7 × 102 CFU/25 cm2) compared to non-washable floors (1.3 × 102 CFU/25 cm2) (p = 0.05), despite washable floors indicating improved latrines. The in-depth front-end analysis found that moist latrine surfaces had significantly elevated E. coli densities (1.2 × 103 CFU/25 cm2) compared to the dry ones (14.3 CFU/25 cm2) (p < 0.001), highlighting the importance of maintaining dry latrine surfaces. Latrine floors and mid-walls were the most frequently contaminated surfaces, emphasising the need to clean and disinfect these surfaces. Only 46% of the households reported always using soap for handwashing after defecation, exacerbating the risk of transmitting faecal pathogens. This study highlights that latrine cleanliness and hygiene are as crucial as latrine infrastructures for the effective disruption of faecal pathogens transmission during latrine use.

Anthropogenic Drivers of Spatial Trends in Groundwater Quality in the Upper Athi River Basin of Kenya, East Africa

Rapid urbanization and population growth in the upper Athi River basin in Kenya have increased the strain on the sub catchments water supply and sanitation situation. Due to increasing demand, inadequate supply of drinking water and lack of sanitation facilities, people in the sub-catchment are increasingly reliant on groundwater as a primary or supplementary water source. However, the use of on-site wastewater systems and agricultural pollution, mainly from runoff containing fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and faeces, pose a threat to groundwater in the sub catchment. Subsequently, the current study was conducted in the Thiririka sub catchment, Kiambu County, Kenya, to determine the safety of groundwater sources and to examine the factors influencing groundwater quality in the catchment area. This study assessed the influence of anthropogenic activities on the physical, chemical, and bacteriological quality of groundwater in the Upper Athi River basin of Kenya between April and June 2022. Twenty variables were analyzed and compared with water quality standards to determine hydro chemical characteristics, evidence of contamination, and suitability of groundwater. Shallow wells (SW) had higher concentrations of major ions and key parameters than boreholes (BH), such as alkalinity (7%), turbidity (96%), nitrates (92%), sulfates (48%), phosphates (93%), chlorides (77%), potassium (84%), sodium (30%) and fecal coliforms (99%) significant at p &amp;lt; 0.01. Concentrations of eleven water quality variables however were comparable in both systems. Farming, animal husbandry, and pit latrines were negatively but significantly correlated with the water quality of SW explaining substantial amounts of variation (≤ 45%) in concentrations of water quality variables. Ionic and coliform levels increased with decreasing distance and vice versa. IDW interpolation maps were generated in ArcGIS software to determine the spatial variability of groundwater quality in the basin. Anthropogenic activities such as pit latrines and animal husbandry impaired the quality of groundwater which in most cases was not potable.

Scenario Analysis of Food Phosphorus Footprint in Kisumu, a Lakeside East African City in Lake Victoria (Kenya).

Increased food production and consumption patterns have resulted in higher urban food phosphorus footprints, leading to a series of resource and environmental problems worldwide. We quantified the food phosphorus footprint of the African city of Kisumu using substance flow analysis. Our aim was to develop Kisumu's sustainable phosphorus management framework so that the city would reduce phosphorus losses into the food system. Our results show that in the year 2023, the import and export of food phosphorus in the Kisumu food system was 2730.26 ± 2.7% t P yr-1 and 3297.05 ± 2.4% t P yr-1, respectively. There was -566.79 ± -18% t P yr-1 food phosphorus deficit in the Kisumu food system. Crop planting subsystem runoff/leaching/erosion loss, household consumption subsystem waste loss, and pit latrine subsystem blackwater loss are the major pathways of phosphorus losses into the environment and the main contributors to the food phosphorus footprint in the city. The 2030 scenario analysis shows that implementing a comprehensive scenario scheme throughout the entire lifecycle process from phosphorus input to waste disposal is the best choice for reducing phosphorus losses and suppressing the growth of food phosphorus footprint in the future. Our study shows that the food phosphorus footprint in the Kisumu food system was 0.67 kg P cap-1yr-1 in 2023, which is still at a low level but may enter a continuous upward trend with the improvement of socio-economic development of the city. In our framework, we have proposed a few essential measures that include urine separation, installation of septic tank, adjustment of dietary structure, flexible layout of sanitary disposal facilities, and separation of organic waste streams to reduce food phosphorus footprints in Kisumu. Given the similarity of cities along the shores of Lake Victoria, our calculation methods and management strategies can be applied to other cities in the region.

Water, Sanitation and Hygiene practices in areas affected by Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe

ABSTRACT This study aimed to investigate the association between Cyclone Idai and the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) practices in Chimanimani and Chipinge districts in Zimbabwe. The WASH parameters assessed included the main water source, the type of toilet in the household, the number of households sharing a toilet and the presence of a handwashing facility for use after using the toilet. The highest proportion of households that were mostly affected used piped water, while those not affected mainly used community boreholes (42.9%), protected wells (24.2%) and surface water (18.7%). Most households that were relocated to camps (70%) used the pit latrine with slabs, while most of the households that were not affected (41.8%) used the bush as their toilet facility. Only households relocated to camps shared toilets. Only the most affected and resettled population groups (in camps) had better access to improved WASH infrastructure. However, the sharing of toilets was high and the use of handwashing facilities was low in all settlement types. There was a significant association between the severity of Cyclone Idai and the main water source, adequacy of drinking water, sharing of toilets and the ability to purify drinking water.

Compliance of private ventilated improved pit latrines to odour and fly control guidelines: A technical audit in selected regions of Ghana

The ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine offers a promising route to safely managed sanitation to many households in developing countries. However, some technical guidelines must be followed in order to realise the technology's advantage of odour and fly nuisance control. This study sought to audit private VIP latrines in selected regions of Ghana to assess their compliance to conventional technical guidelines and to understand the major factors that influence the latrine designs. An inspection checklist was developed to assess 296 private VIP latrines in the Central, Ashanti and Northern Regions of Ghana while semi-structured interviews were conducted among the latrine owners to enquire the factors that influenced the designs of their latrines. The results show that provision of a window in the superstructure (86 %), and the avoidance of an insect screen in the window(s) (77 %) were the most complied guidelines. The use of 150 mm diameter vent pipe was the least satisfied guideline (5 %). On the average, a latrine satisfied about half (3.6) of the technical guidelines that were assessed. The decision or advice of local artisans is the most influential factor in the design of the latrines. Cost was the least mentioned factor cited by the latrine owners. There is the need to establish information desks at the various Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) to guide prospective owners on the proper design and construction of the VIP latrine. In addition, toilet construction should be incorporated in the curriculum for the basic training of building and construction students in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions in Ghana. Further research is required to ascertain the basis of the decisions of local artisans and the potential impact of the use of accessories that are ‘borrowed’ from the WC toilet on odour and fly control in the latrine.

Knowledge, attitude and practice on water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and COVID-19 among households in rural Bangladesh

Enhanced water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) conditions can significantly reduce the incidence of communicable diseases and deaths related to diarrhea by up to 65%. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advocates regular handwashing with soap and water for at least 20 seconds as an effective measure to mitigate the spread of COVID-19. This study aims to assess rural Bangladeshi households' perceptions and knowledge concerning the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as their understanding, attitudes, and practices regarding water, sanitation, and hygiene. A cross-sectional study was conducted between June 2020 and December 2020 to evaluate knowledge and practices related to safe water, sanitation, personal hygiene, and COVID-19 in rural Bangladesh. Self-administered questionnaires, pre-tested for reliability, were utilized to collect self-reported data, which were subsequently analyzed descriptively. Of the study participants, 66.78% were female, with a mean age of 40. The majority (92.36%) demonstrated adequate knowledge of personal hygiene, although 66.78% had not received hygiene education, and a significant proportion reported low levels of hygiene practices (17.28%). Nearly all respondents (98%) reported having access to a pit latrine, either with or without a seal, yet 63.12% indicated that their toilets become unusable during floods, and 29% admitted to practicing open defecation. While nearly all respondents were aware of the ongoing COVID-19 outbreak, only 46% had a comprehensive understanding of its transmission dynamics. Moreover, knowledge about preventive measures against the pandemic was found to be limited. Despite understanding the importance of handwashing, reported hand hygiene practices were inadequate among rural households. Additionally, a majority reported inadequate management of child feces, household waste, and sludge tanks. While awareness of the COVID-19 pandemic was high, a substantial proportion of respondents lacked understanding of its transmission and prevention methods. Moreover, fewer respondents reported using hand sanitizer when venturing outside for work. Future research should explore the impact of these behaviors on health outcomes and propose targeted interventions to improve hygiene practices. Jahangirnagar University J. Biol. Sci. 12(1 &amp; 2): 11-21, 2023 (June &amp; December)

Evaluation Of Some Drinking Water Qualities In Some Villages In Gezira State

Safe and potable water is the basic need for human. In Gezira State groundwater is the main source of domestic water. While most villages in Gezira State traditionally use pit latrines, septic tanks and injection wells have been introduced recently. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of latrine system in some villages in North Gezira State on some physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters of groundwater. Water samples were collected from sixteen villages (Wadalmahna, Alkamlin Abdalab, Umdagarsey, Wadalmajedi, Abu usher, Altalbab, Alshawarab, Genib, Albataheen, Abufroa, Alsadaga, Alhassaheisa, Alsalama, Addaid Abu usher, Altakla Hamed, and Altakla Gobara) and analyzed for various physico-chemical and microbiological parameters. Physico-chemical parameter includes pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity, total dissolved solids, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, and some heavy metals. The microbiologic test includes a total count of coli form and fecal coli form E. coli, which is an indicator of fecal contamination of water. Standard laboratory methods for analysis were used. These parameters were compared with World Health Organization (WHO) and Sudanese Standards and Metrology Organization (SSMO) to assess the suitability of groundwater for domestic purpose. The results show that most of the Physio-chemical parameters are within the acceptable ranges for WHO and SSMO, except water salinity in three villages (Alshawarab, 1935 μmhoscm-1; Albataheen, 1885 μmhoscm-1 and Abufroa, 1780 μmhoscm-1) is higher than the acceptable level (1500 μmhoscm-1). For microbiological tests, total coli form bacteria were detected in all water samples. E. coli was not detected in villages where traditional pit latrine is used. In village where septic tank and injection well is common E. coli was detected in all the samples. The study concludes that the groundwater used for drinking in North Gezira State is polluted, and there is contamination with E. coli in areas where traditional pit latrines are not the sanitation system. Keywords: drinking water, latrine system, Villages in Gezira State, Physical, chemical, groundwater, WHO, microbiological

The Impact of Pit Latrines on the Pollution of Groundwater in the District of Rwamagana, Rwanda

The composition and condition of a water body change over time and across different locations due to internal and external factors. In many rural and peri- urban communities in Rwamagana, the lack of treated water has increased reliance on groundwater for various household and community needs. Groundwater sources are essential for meeting the water demand in these regions. An investigation was carried out in the Rwamagana district of the eastern province of Rwanda to evaluate the influence of pit latrines on groundwater quality. The research examined the water quality of four boreholes with hand pumps and 18 improved springs located near pit latrines. The evaluation specifically looked at total coliforms (TC), electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity, and pH. The proximity of the pit latrines to the boreholes or springs was considered in order to determine the presence of fecal coliforms in the groundwater, with the goal of establishing a minimum safe distance between the pit latrines and water sources. The physicochemical indicators of the water samples met the drinking water quality criteria set by the World Health Organization (WHO). However, the levels of biological contaminants exceeded the WHO's drinking water quality standards. The highest coliform counts detected in the study were 99cfu/100ml of water. The research findings suggest a clear relationship between fecal microbes from pit latrines and their impact on groundwater quality, with the contamination effect extending up to 322.4m for improved springs and 266.2m for boreholes with hand pumps.

Performance of Pit Latrines and Their Herd Protection Against Diarrhea: A Longitudinal Cohort Study in Rural Ethiopia.

In sanitation policies, "improved sanitation" is often broadly described as a goal with little rationale for the minimum standard required. We conducted a secondary analysis of data collected as part of a cluster randomized controlled trial in rural Ethiopia. We compared the performance of well-constructed and poorly constructed pit latrines in reducing child diarrhea. In addition, we explored whether having a well-constructed household latrine provides indirect protection to neighbors if cluster-level coverage reaches a certain threshold. We followed up children aged younger than 5 years (U5C) of 906 households in rural areas of the Gurage zone, Ethiopia, for 10 months after community-led total sanitation interventions. A study-improved latrine was defined as having all the following: pit of ≥2 m depth, slab of any material, drop-hole cover, wall, roof, door, and handwashing facilities (water and soap observed). U5C in households with a study-improved latrine had 54% lower odds of contracting diarrhea than those living in households with a latrine missing 1 or more of the characteristics (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]=0.46; 95% confidence interval [CI]=0.27, 0.81; P=.006). Analyses were adjusted for child age and sex, presence of improved water for drinking, and self-reported handwashing at 4 critical times. The odds of having diarrhea among those with an improved latrine based on the World Health Organization/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) definition (i.e., pit latrines with slabs) were not substantially different from those with a JMP-unimproved latrine (aOR=0.99; 95% CI=0.56, 1.79; P=.99). Of U5C living in households without a latrine or with a study-unimproved latrine, those in the high-coverage villages were less likely to contract diarrhea than those in low-coverage villages (aOR=0.55; 95% CI=0.35, 0.86; P=.008). We recommend that academic studies and routine program monitoring and evaluation should measure more latrine characteristics and evaluate multiple latrine categories instead of making binary comparisons only.

Comparative life cycle assessment of excreta management systems through composting and biomethanization: Case of a low-income tropical country.

Low-income tropical regions, such as Haiti, grapple with environmental issues stemming from inadequate sanitation infrastructure for fecal sludge management. This study scrutinizes on-site sanitation systems in these regions, evaluating their environmental impacts and pinpointing improvement opportunities. The focus is specifically on systems integrating excreta valorization through composting and/or anaerobic digestion. Each system encompasses toilet access, evacuation, and sludge treatment. A comparative life cycle assessment was undertaken, with the functional unit managing one ton of excreta in Haiti over a year. Six scenarios representing autonomous sanitation systems were devised by combining three toilet types (container-based toilets (CBTs), ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines, and flush toilets (WC)) with two sludge treatment processes (composting and biomethanization). Biodigester-based systems exhibited 1.05 times higher sanitary impacts and 1.03 times higher ecosystem impacts than those with composters. Among toilet types, CBTs had the lowest impacts, followed by VIP latrines, with WCs having the highest impacts. On average, WC scenarios were 3.85 times more impactful than VIP latrines and 4.04 times more impactful than those with CBTs regarding human health impact. Critical variables identified include the use of toilet paper, wood shavings, greenhouse gas emissions, and construction materials.