Pistachio Research Articles

Tree Nut Crop Response to Simulated Florpyrauxifen-benzyl and Triclopyr Herbicide Drift

California is the nation’s primary producer of almonds, pistachios, and walnuts, and an important producer of rice. Because of California’s diverse cropping systems, off-target herbicide drift can be a considerable problem, particularly from aerial applications that are commonly used in flooded rice production systems. Triclopyr is an auxin-mimic type herbicide that has been commonly used in rice for many years for control of broadleaf weeds and the industry is familiar with symptoms of off-target triclopyr drift. Florpyrauxifen-benzyl is a newly registered auxin-mimic herbicide in California rice with activity on key weeds and is being rapidly adopted. Although symptoms typically are similar among auxinic herbicides, it is important to understand subtle differences and risks among these herbicides as stewardship for newly registered products. This research was conducted in 2020 and 2021 to determine the relative sensitivity of almond, pistachio, and walnut trees to simulated drift rates of florpyrauxifen-benzyl and triclopyr as well as characterize and compare symptoms caused by these two herbicides. The fractional herbicide rates tested were 1/200X, 1/100X, 1/33X, and 1/10X of the florpyrauxifen-benzyl use rate of 29.4 g·ha−1 a.i. and 1/200X, 1/100X, and 1/33X of the triclopyr use rate of 420.3 g·ha−1 a.e. Florpyrauxifen-benzyl and triclopyr herbicides were applied directly to one side of the canopy of 1- to 2-year-old almond, pistachio, and walnut trees. The general symptoms of florpyrauxifen-benzyl and triclopyr were chlorosis, chlorotic spots, leaf curling, leaf narrowing, leaf distortion, leaf malformation, leaf crinkling, shoot curling, stem coloring, stunting, terminal bud death, and twisting. The florpyrauxifen-benzyl and triclopyr injury symptoms were compared at the same fractional rates and found to be similar to each other. The herbicide injury was observed on the entire pistachio canopy, particularly on developing leaves and terminal buds. In contrast, injury symptoms on almond and walnut were more apparent on the side of the canopy to which the herbicides were applied. Symptom severity peaked at 14 days after treatment with the 1/10X florpyrauxifen-benzyl rate, when the visible injury was 16%, 48%, and 78% on almond, walnut, and pistachio, respectively. Although almond and walnut symptoms from the 1/10X florpyrauxifen-benzyl rate remained visible longer than all other treatments, all trees gradually recovered throughout the growing season. In contrast, pistachio trees did not recover fully and had injury symptoms that persisted for the remainder of the treatment year and at leaf-out the following spring. When drift occurs, it is typically at rates below 1/100X up to 1/33X of herbicide use rates. This research suggested that proper herbicide drift management practices and application precautions are likely to minimize the risk of significant injury from florpyrauxifen-benzyl drift to almond and walnut because of low injury symptoms at the typical drift rates. However, extra precautions may be needed if there are nearby pistachio orchards.

Could Pistachio (Pistacia vera) Be a Suitable Alternative Crop for Olive-Growing Mediterranean Areas Affected by Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca ST53?

In the olive-growing areas of Apulia (southern Italy) where Xylella fastidiosa has caused enormous damage, there is a need to identify alternative crops. These could include pistachio (Pistacia vera L.), but it is critical to define the impact of the bacterium on this crop and what are the main phytosanitary threats for this species in the areas where the bacterium is now endemic. Therefore, we started evaluating infections caused by X. fastidiosa, the fungus Neofusicoccum mediterraneum, and other pathogens on four pistachio cultivars ('Kerman', 'Aegina', 'Lost Hills', and 'Napoletana') grown in areas where X. fastidiosa has been present for a long time. X. fastidiosa was detected only in one orchard (incidence: 18% 'Napoletana' and 55% 'Kerman') out of six surveyed orchards, with low bacterium concentration (1.67 to 5.98 × 103 CFU ml-1) and no symptoms. N. mediterraneum was retrieved in three orchards just on the cultivar Kerman but with high incidence (up to 30%) and infection level quantified as molecular severity (6.82 to 7.43); no other pathogens were detected. The N. mediterraneum representative isolates characterized in this study showed similarity with Spanish and Portuguese isolates. A confocal microscope analysis for this host-pathogen association suggested no differences in plant response to fungal aggression between the cultivars Kerman and Aegina, but just lack of latent inoculum in 'Aegina' plants, pointing to a possible nursery origin of the infection. Waiting for additional targeted experiments to clearly define host response of pistachio cultivars to Xylella spp., this study also points at N. mediterraneum as a potential threat to this tree crop new for the area.

Identification of Fusarium Wilt Disease Causal Agents in Pistachio Fields and Determination of Efficacy of Some Fungicides Controlling of The Disease

Pistachio (Pistacia vera) propagation is commonly carried out by seedlings and new orchards are mostly set by in situ grafting of rootstocks. Pathogenic and molecular characterization of wilt and desiccation agents observed in nurseries and young orchards were carried out and the causal species were identified as Fusarium oxysporum and F. solani. In vitro inhibition of mycelial development and conidia germination were carried out with seven fungicides selected against the disease. The plant protection product containing Prothioconazole + Spiroxamine was found to be 100% effective in mycelial growth trials in F. oxysporum isolates from 20 mgL-1 and in F. solani from 100 mL-1 at all increasing doses. . The fungicide containing phosphoric acid was found to be 18.3%-33.3% effective on both species at 2.5 times the recommended dose. On conidial germination, Prothioconazole + Spiroxamine and Captan provided 100% inhibition even at the lowest doses in all isolates tested. The EC50 values of Prothioconazole + Spiroxamine, which was determined as the most effective chemical in mycelial development and conidial germination, were 3.67 ml and 3.72 ml in F. oxysporum isolates and 56.83 ml in F. solani, respectively.

An investigation on the mechanical, thermal and tribological properties of newly developed polyester composites made with Pistachio shell particles for industrial applications

The drive for sustainability and addressing environmental concerns has led to the productive use of bio-waste. This research investigates the potential of pistachio (Pistacia vera) nut shell particles as a novel filler in polyester composites. The study explores the use of these nut shells as a reinforcing material in polyester-based composites to evaluate their mechanical and thermal properties. Pistachio shell particles (PSP) are mixed with polyester resin in varying weight fractions (0%, 1%, 3%, and 5%) to create a new type of composite. The impact of filler content, impingement angle and striking velocity on the erosive wear behavior of these composites are also studied. The mechanical results for the composites revealed that incorporating PSP filler resulted in the maximum rise in tensile (96.61%), impact strength (66.66%), micro-hardness (52.94%), under loading of 5 wt% of PSP filler. However, the composite with 3 wt% of PSP filler, resulted in the maximum rise of flexural strength (135.65%) and flexural modulus (45.28%). Results showed that, composites with 5 wt% of PSP filler exhibited superior erosive resistance. An optimal parameter setting is determined for minimum erosion rate and subsequently validated by conducting confirmation experiment as per Taguchi methodology. Different modes of material removal, wear craters and other qualitative attributes are examined by a scanning electron microscopy during erosion experiment of the samples. Thus, the utilization of agro/food wastes in the development of bio-based products holds significant potential and offers the possibility of replacing conventional materials in various industrial applications.

Spraying glycine betaine on fresh pistachio fruits (Pistacia vera L.) for preservation in cold storage

Oxidative stress occurs during storage, often leading to a decrease in fruit quality and subsequently reducing its marketability. In this investigation, the ability of glycine betaine (GB) to extend the quality and storage of fresh pistachios stored in cold conditions was evaluated. The independent variables in this study were the concentration of GB (0, 5, 10 and 15 mM) and storage period (at harvest, 25, 50, and 75 days after harvest). Over time, the chlorophyll and carotenoid content of both kernels and hulls, as well as phenolics, flavonoids, antioxidant activity, taste, aroma, appearance of shells and hulls, firmness, and overall weight, tend to decrease. However, glycine betaine (GB) significantly prevents these reductions. GB effectively countered the rise in malondialdehyde, ion leakage, and hydrogen peroxide levels in kernels over time. In GB-treated samples, anthocyanin levels initially increased when comparing harvest time in both kernels and hulls, but subsequently decreased. GB enhanced peroxidase activity and suppressed polyphenol oxidase activity. However, contrary to expectation, GB reduces phenylalanine ammonia lyase activity. Overall, higher GB concentrations lead to a more pronounced effect. Based on the results, GB, particularly at a concentration of 15 mM, is recommended for preserving fresh pistachios during cold storage.

Megafire smoke exposure jeopardizes tree carbohydrate reserves and yield.

The global incidence of megafires is on the rise, leading to extensive areas being shrouded in dense smoke for prolonged periods, spanning days or weeks1. Here, by integrating long-term regional observations of non-structural carbohydrate content in trees across California's Central Valley with spatiotemporal satellite data, we present compelling evidence that dense smoke plumes negatively impact carbohydrate stores in three tree species: Prunus dulcis, Pistacia vera and Juglans regia. Our findings show that the presence of smoke causes a significant decrease in total non-structural carbohydrates, with reductions in the accumulation of both soluble sugar and starch reserves. This decline in carbohydrate levels persists through the trees' dormancy period into the next season's bloom, culminating in a reduced yield. Our results highlight a previously unrecognized wildfire threat that could affect plant health and ecosystem stability in both agricultural and natural environments.

A hypothetical model behind the molecular mechanism of alternate behaviour in Pistacia vera L.

A hypothetical model behind the molecular mechanism of alternate behaviour in <i>Pistacia vera</i> L.

Pistacia vera and its Combination with Cisplatin: A Potential Anticancer Candidate by Modulating Apoptotic Genes.

Many bioactive phytochemicals have essential significance for handling various diseases and developing new drugs. The aim was to investigate the anti-tumor activity and the underlying mechanisms of pistachio pericarp extract (PPE) and pistachio kernel extract (PKE) alone and combined with cisplatin (CP) in the treatment of prostate cancer. The effects of the PPE, PKE, and CP alone and PPE and PKE in combination with CP (PPE+CP and PKE+CP) on the proliferation of PC-3 cells were determined using the MTT assay. The fold changes of BAX, BCL-2, P53, KLK2, TNF, TGF, and NANOG expression against β-actin were determined by real-time technique. Data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA and repeated measure tests. These research results indicated that a greater anti-proliferative effect of the PPE and PKE was shown in combination with CP compared with treatments using the PPE and PKE or CP alone. The extracts and Cisplatin in vitro had good synergistic effects on the inhibition of the proliferation of PC-3 cells. The IC50 values of PKE+CP were 4.141, 2.140, and 0.884 ug/mL, and PPE+CP were 2.754, 2.061, and 0.753 ug/mL after 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h treatment, respectively. Also, this result presented that the mRNA expression of BAX and P53 increased, and BCL-2, KLK2, TNF, TGF, and NANOG decreased in PC-3 cells. The finding of this research showed for the first time the anti-carcinogenesis effects of separately and in the combination of PPE, PKE, and CP on the PC-3 prostate cancer cells via modulating some genes and that it may be nominated for the herbal anti-cancer medications.

Characterizing varietal differences of pistachio development and nut quality at harvest

Characterizing varietal differences of pistachio development and nut quality at harvest

Beyond the Nut: Pistacia Leaves as Natural Food Preservatives.

The pistachio tree (Pistacia vera) is globally renowned for its nutritious nuts, while its leaves remain an underutilized source of chemicals with significant potential value as food preservatives. Similar value may be found in the leaves of other wild Pistacia species common in Central Asia, the Levant, and around the Mediterranean. Some species' leaves have been used as natural preservatives, demonstrating their effectiveness and highlighting their rich bioactive components. This review investigates the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of Pistacia leaves, comparing both cultivated and wild species. A comprehensive search was performed across several scientific databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, utilizing a combination of keywords related to Pistacia species and their bioactive compounds. The inclusion criteria focused on articles published in English from 2017 till the end of June 2024, analyzing the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Pistacia leaves and employing relevant extraction methods. A total of 71 literature sources were included, covering species such as P. vera, P. atlantica, P. terebinthus, and others sourced from countries such as Iran, Turkey, and Italy. This review found that Pistacia leaves are rich in polyphenolic compounds and exhibit robust antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, with certain wild species outperforming P. vera, suggesting species-specific traits that enhance their preservative potential. The major findings indicate that extracts from wild species exhibit superior bioactivity, which could be harnessed for food preservation. These insights underscore the promising role of Pistacia leaves as natural food preservatives, with further research needed to address challenges in extraction and application. Exploring their synergistic effects with other preservatives could lead to innovative solutions in food preservation while fostering local economic growth.

Classification of Open and Closed Pistachio Shells Using Machine Vision Approach

Pistachio nuts are a type of nut that is widely consumed around the world due to their high nutritional value and pleasant taste. Pistachios are usually sold in their shells, either open or closed. However, closed-shell pistachios are not well received by consumers, resulting in a lower commercial value. It is essential to be able to distinguish between open and closed pistachio shells in order to ensure quality control during production processes and processing. This can be done manually or by using mechanical devices. Manual inspection and categorization of pistachio nuts have traditionally been done by workers, but this process is inefficient in terms of time and money. Mechanical separation of open and closed-shell pistachio can damage the kernels of open-shell nuts due to the needle mechanism used in the sorting process. This study aims to classify pistachio nuts using a machine vision-based system and evaluate its applicability in terms of classification accuracy. The system is evaluated on the Antep pistachio species, which can be distinguished from other pistachio varieties, such as Siirt and Urfa pistachios, based on their shape, size, and taste properties. The machine vision system in this study classifies pistachio nuts into closed and open shell classes in a completely automated manner. In this study, 1,000 Antep pistachio nuts images were obtained and examined, including 500 open and 500 closed nuts. The images were pre-processed and prepared for feature extraction. From the images, a total of 14 color features were extracted. Although the single feature was used, promising classification accuracy rates of 95.6%, 94.8%, and 93.6% from the Random Forest, Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Logistic Regression were achieved, respectively. The performances of classifiers were compared to each other. Almost similar performances were detected. These results demonstrate that the Random Forest classifier is the most effective algorithm for classifying open and closed Antep pistachio nuts.

Blooming Phenograms, Pollen Production, and Pollen Quality during Storage of Pistachio Cultivars in New Mediterranean Growing Areas.

Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is a dioecious, anemophilous, and drought-resistant fruit tree species. It is cultivated in new Mediterranean areas, including the regions of southern Italy (Apulia and Basilicata). It has been estimated that over 40,000 ha are suitable for pistachio cultivation in areas infected by Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca. As a newly introduced species, knowledge of its biological reproductive behaviors in its new areas of spreading is essential for appropriate agronomic planning and management. This two-year study (2022 and 2023), carried out in the countryside of Stigliano (MT, Italy), had the objective of evaluating the flowering phenograms, pollen production, and assessing protocols for the conservation and extension of pollen viability, of the most widespread cultivars. A slight delay was observed in the blooming phenograms, compared to other cultivation Mediterranean areas, such as Spain or Sicily. Furthermore, the overlap between female and male phenograms was partial. No significant differences were observed in the polliniferous aptitude of the two male cultivars. Among the different protocols tested, the pollen storage at 33% relative humidity and a temperature of -80 °C maintained the pollen germinability above 50% for up to three weeks. These findings highlight the importance of controlled environmental conditions in preserving pollen viability over extended periods, providing valuable insights for agricultural and botanical research that relies on maintaining pollen viability for breeding and genetic studies.

A comparative analysis of dendrometric, macromorphological, and micromorphological characteristics of Pistacia atlantica subsp. atlantica and Pistacia terebinthus in the middle Atlas region of Morocco.

The genus Pistacia, with its species having notable ecological, economic, and medicinal implications, demonstrates remarkable environmental adaptability. The central objective of the study is to analyze interspecific variations between Pistacia atlantica subsp. atlantica and Pistacia terebinthus across three distinct bioclimatic zones in the Middle Atlas region of Morocco. The methodology includes collecting dendrometric measurements and conducting macromorphological examinations on these two taxa, with a detailed analysis of 27 qualitative and quantitative variables. A micro-morphological analysis of leaves, using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), is employed to explore specific features such as size and stomatal density, as well as qualitative aspects like epidermal cell shape and trichomes. Dendrometric measurements have revealed that the canopy surface and the number of trunks per tree can serve as distinctive features between the two species. Regarding the sex ratio of Pistacia atlantica subsp. atlantica, 59% of the examined trees are males, primarily associated with the jujube tree in arid zones and the dwarf palm in humid areas. In contrast, female Pistacia terebinthus exhibit a similar percentage, predominantly associated with oak groves and cade juniper in their distribution areas. Principal component analysis of biometric measurements emphasized a significant disparity between the two species, representing 60.25% of the total variance. The use of SEM unveiled new features facilitating the identification of the two species. By leveraging the macromorphological and micromorphological variability of pistachio trees, we can qualify those best suited to diverse bioclimates. In this regard, we suggest incorporating them into reforestation and rehabilitation programs aimed at restoring our declining ecosystems.

Optimization and Validation of a Cheaper, Safer, and More Sustainable Methodology for Aflatoxins Determination in Rich-Lipidic Matrices (Pistachio Nuts) Using Deep Eutectic Solvent Extraction and UHPLC-FLD Analysis.

Aflatoxins pose a major health concern and require strict monitoring in food products. Existing methods rely on hazardous organic solvents for extraction, prompting the development of a greener alternative. This study explores deep eutectic solvents (DESs) for aflatoxin extraction from pistachios, a valuable food product prone to aflatoxin contamination. The proposed method utilizes DES extraction followed by solid-phase extraction cleanup and ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detector analysis. Recovery rates ranged from 85.5 to 99.1% for pistachios spiked with 1-8 ng/g aflatoxins, in compliance with EU regulations, with coefficients of variation less than 2.94%. The method demonstrates good sensitivity with limits of detection and quantification in the range of 0.02-0.22 ng/g and 0.05-0.72 ng/g, respectively. Greenness assessment using AGREEPrep and White Analytical Chemistry metrics confirms its environmental sustainability. This approach offers a promising, safer, and more eco-friendly alternative for aflatoxin extraction from complex food matrices like pistachios.

Evaluation of Pyroxasulfone Crop Safety and Weed Control for California Tree Nut Orchards

Pyroxasulfone is a very long chain fatty acid (VLCFA) inhibitor (group 15) with potential for preemergence weed control in orchard crops and would be beneficial for reducing selection pressure for resistance to more commonly used herbicides, such as glyphosate. Pyroxasulfone is registered and widely used in corn and soybeans in the United States as a solo product and in several premix formulations. However, there is limited published information on the performance and safety of pyroxasulfone in tree nut orchard systems. To assess the potential fit for pyroxasulfone in this crop sector, a series of crop safety and weed control efficacy experiments were carried out in key California orchard crops and in fallow fields with common orchard weeds. The non-crop studies were conducted near Davis, CA, to evaluate winter annual weed control with pyroxasulfone in comparison with pendimethalin and indaziflam. In addition, an irrigation incorporation experiment was conducted in summer to evaluate the effects of incorporation timing on pyroxasulfone, pendimethalin, and indaziflam efficacy as a measure of relative stability. Orchard weed control experiments were conducted in spring in an almond orchard near Arbuckle, CA, and a walnut orchard near Davis, CA. The orchard experiments included pyroxasulfone, pendimethalin, and indaziflam in various rate combinations with glufosinate. To evaluate crop safety, 2-year experiments were conducted to evaluate repeated applications of above-label rates of pyroxasulfone at 1199 g·ha−1 and S-metolachlor at 14,010 g·ha−1 on 1- to 2-year-old almond, pistachio, and walnut trees near Davis. Pyroxasulfone performed similarly to commercial standards with up to 95% control of broadleaf and grass weeds with pyroxasulfone and indaziflam providing 96% to 100% control of annual bluegrass, and pyroxasulfone (293 g·ha−1) being the only herbicide to suppress (&gt;70%) common lambsquarters at 60 days after treatment (DAT). Other weeds controlled by pyroxasulfone include swinecress, redroot pigweed, yellow nutsedge, and Italian ryegrass. No differences were found among treatments in the incorporation timing study indicating adequate stability on the soil surface under summer conditions. Crop injury was not observed in the established orchards or the young orchard studies and there were no treatment effects on tree trunk diameter of almond, pistachio, and walnut in the 2-year crop safety experiments. These results indicate a potential for pyroxasulfone in California tree nut orchard systems that would be an additional site of action and beneficial for management of herbicide-resistant weeds in these crops.

Volatile Profile of Hydrosol Extracted from Pistacia vera Soft Bark and Potential Use in Fish Feed Industry

The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of hydrosol obtained from discarded soft shells of Pistacia vera, which is a byproduct of Pistachio production. The study sought to examine the qualitative makeup of the volatile components found in the hydrosol and assess its potential as an additive in fish feed. To accomplish this goal, a hydrodistillation procedure was used to extract 1 kilogram of soft P. vera peel. The hydrosol achieved a performance level of 170 milliliters per kilogram. The product was analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, which identified 16 components comprising 93.37% of the product. The main component of the product was identified as Limonene-4-ol, making up 44.60% of the product. Furthermore, the product contained substantial amounts of Benzenemethanol, alpha. alpha.,4-trimethyl, α-terpineol, Bornyl acetate, Carvone, and Eucalyptol (1,8 cineol). Previous research on the bioactive chemicals found in P. vera softshell suggests that the hydrosol generated from it could be used as a fish feed additive. This is mostly due to its antibacterial and antioxidant effects.

Correction: Rearing carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zell.), on pistachio nuts: biological and statistical approaches

Correction: Rearing carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zell.), on pistachio nuts: biological and statistical approaches

Quantitative variation of phenolic compounds in different tissues of pistachio(Pistacia vera L. cv. Uzun) associated with alternate bearing

Quantitative variation of phenolic compounds in different tissues of pistachio(Pistacia vera L. cv. Uzun) associated with alternate bearing

Resistance of pistachio grafted on different Pistacia rootstocks against Verticillium wilt under field conditions

AbstractVerticillium wilt of pistachio (Pistacia vera), caused by Verticillium dahliae, is one of the most important diseases in this crop. The most effective and economical control measure is the use of resistant rootstocks. The main objective of this work was to evaluate the resistance of five rootstocks commonly used in pistachio against the disease under field conditions. Pistachio plants (cv. Kerman) grafted on the rootstocks Pistacia atlantica, Pistacia integerrima, Pistacia terebinthus and cv. Platinum and UCBI hybrids, were planted in a field with high inoculum density of V. dahliae in the soil. Plants grafted on P. terebinthus, followed by P. integerrima, showed significantly higher disease severity values than the rest of the rootstocks almost 53 months after planting; also, plants grafted on P. atlantica were more resistant than those grafted on P. integerrima. These results highlighted the intraspecific variability in resistance to the disease. In addition, the disease was monitored in pistachios grafted onto P. terebinthus or UCBI in an established commercial field with three different zones of V. dahliae inoculum density in the soil (none, low or high). In the high‐density zone, the percentage of diseased plants was significantly lower for plants grafted on UCBI than for those grafted on P. terebinthus. The results indicate the importance of rootstock species and specific genotype or seed population used, concentration of V. dahliae inoculum in the soil, and previous history of crops on the plot, on the development of the disease under natural conditions.

Basic and microwave modification processes to produce new activated carbon adsorbents based on Pistacia atlantica Kurdica nuts as carbonaceous raw material; A comparative study on the adsorption and elimination of acid blue 113

The nutshell of the pistachio tree was used as a precursor for producing new activated carbon (AC) adsorbent. The raw material was rinsed in H3PO4 (85 % w/w) and heated in a cylindrical furnace at 350 °C/90 min to 700 °C/60 min in a He and NH3 atmosphere. To change the surface chemistry, basic modification of AC was done under the NH3 atmosphere at 700 °C. The FT-IR spectrum showed apparent changes. The microwave, as second modification method, led to significant changes in the porosity properties of AC, especially in the surface area. The SEM images showed the differences in the morphology of the modified and unmodified samples. In the next step, an improved adsorption process was implemented to remove acid blue 113 (AB113). Basic and microwave-modified AC (BMM-AC) showed an enhanced removal efficiency of more than 97.54 % compared to AC, 60.32 %, microwave-modified AC (MM-AC), 73.08 %, and basic modified AC (BM-AC) 88.72 %, which revealed the positive role of the modification methods. Increasing the SBET from 238.8 to 368.6 m2/g using microwaves and changing the surface chemistry by basic modification were significant results of the study. These changes led to the construction of an improved removal process using BMM-AC to eliminate AB113.