Pipe Diameter Research Articles

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PRESSURE AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS IN BASIC AND MODIFIED AIR COMPRESSOR PIPELINE USING COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS IN POWER PLANT TANJUNG ENIM 3X10 MW

Air compressor plays a crucial role by converting electrical energy into kinetic energy in the form of compressed air. This study specifically concentrates on assessing the performance of two compressors that operate alternately, with one compressor in standby mode. Unfortunately, compressor unit #1 faced issues with its drying system, rendering it unable to function within the current pipe network. In order to rectify this, proposed modifications to the pipeline network are introduced and scrutinized. To analyze these modifications, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is employed to evaluate and compare pressure and flow characteristics in both the existing and modified pipe configurations. The CFD analysis utilizes computer engineering software, with SolidWorks serving as the primary modeling and simulation tool. The assumption is made that the Reynolds number corresponds to laminar flow, factoring in pipe diameter and compressor volume rate.The resulting CFD data offers valuable insights into pressure and velocity distributions within the existing and modified pipeline networks. During the pressure simulation, surface pressure and output on both standard and modified pipes exhibit relatively similar pressure values at 7 bar. However, in the air velocity simulation, surfaces of standard and modified pipes maintain a consistent range of 0 – 5 mm/s. Notably, from the pipe output side, air velocity in standard and modified pipes displays distinct speed contours. Standard pipes show the highest speed between 0.25 – 0.38 mm/s, whereas modified pipes exhibit the highest speed within the range of 0.15 – 0.2 mm/s. This study aims to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the proposed modifications, seeking to enhance understanding of the fluid dynamics within air compressor systems. The outcomes of this research have the potential to contribute significantly to optimizing the performance and efficiency of these systems, thereby offering benefits across various industrial applications.

Synthesis and analysis of drag reduction performance of the temperature-resistant polymer slickwater for high temperature reservoirs

Slickwater has been extensively utilised in deep reservoir fracturing owing to its excellent drag reduction performance, and the polymer drag reducer is the core of slickwater. However, polymer drag reducers may degrade at high temperatures, which limits the application of slickwater in high temperature reservoirs. To increase the temperature resistance of slickwater, a novel temperature-resistant polymer drag reducer was chemically synthesised through free-radical polymerisation using acrylamide (AM), acrylic acid (AA), 2-acrylamide-2-methylpropyl sulfonic acid (AMPS) and N,N-dimethylacrylamide (DMAA). The introduction of temperature-resistant monomers substantially increased the thermal stability of the drag reducer. The rheological measurements revealed that the aqueous polymer solution was a pseudoplastic fluid with good viscoelasticity and thickening properties. At 110 °C, the drag reduction rate of 0.03 wt% polymer aqueous solution could reach 72.57 %, and the drag reduction retention rate was 96.69 % when compared with that at 25 °C. The drag reduction performance was evaluated in relation to displacement, concentration, temperature, pipe diameter, and salinity. Simultaneously, the proportion of factors influencing the drag reduction performance was analysed. Finally, a drag reduction mechanism was proposed. This study is expected to extend the application of slickwater in high-temperature reservoir development.

Hydraulic and Utility Performance Evaluation of Ataye Town Water Distribution Network, Ethiopia: case for small towns in developing countries

Evaluating hydraulic and utility performance of water distribution network is a way to check the functionality degree of a system. Water CAD software was used in developing a model and evaluating the hydraulic performance of water distribution system of Ataye Town, Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Both steady state and extended period simulation analysis were carried out to determine hydraulic parameters (pressure and velocity). The model was calibrated using Darwin Calibrator and validity was checked by both correlation coefficient and scatter plot. The utility performance was also evaluated using international water association performance indicators. The simulated result for steady state analysis showed that 68.7% of the nodes operated within optimum adopted pressure (15-60 meter) and 93% of the distribution pipes had a velocity of <0.6 m/s which was a minimum adopted velocity. For extended period simulation 34.3% during maximum demand time and 16.8% during minimum consumption hours had pressure <15meters. 10.8% had negative pressure during maximum demand hours located at Sudan, Selama, and Zigba sefer and 14 nodes (8.4%) during low consumption time had a pressure greater than 60meter, which was a maximum adopted pressure. The areas of high pressure were located at around mosque, Worku Hotel and Hamus Gebaya. The distribution system performs within the adopted pressure at minimum demand time (74.7%) and maximum consumption hours (65.1%). 23.5% of the systems had a velocity of 0.6-2 m/s and the rest had a velocity less than 0.6m/s during high demand time. During low consumption hours, 100% of the system velocity was estimated to be <0.6m/s. Based on the IWA performance indicators, water utility of Ataye Town was evaluated and had low, technical, financial, personnel, and environmental performances. Finally, the distribution system was modified and optimized by providing alternative connections with pressure reducing valves and changing pipe diameter to improve the hydraulic performance and reduce system disruption of the Town.
 Keywords: Extended period simulation; Hydraulic performance; IWA Utility performance; Steady state analysis; Water CAD

Myrmecia: Failure analysis and thermodynamic coupled simulation program for heat pipe in micro reactor based on MOOSE

The heat pipe cooled microreactor (HPMR) has become increasingly popular in the realm of research, largely due to its clean, efficient, and safe properties. This paper presents the development of Myrmecia, a simulation software built on the MOOSE framework. Myrmecia integrates the thermodynamic model and failure analysis model of a heat pipe, facilitating the assessment of the failure probability of a given heat pipe based on its thermodynamic parameters and design parameters. The verification of both models has been conducted. The findings demonstrate that increasing the wall thickness of the heat pipe leads to a reduction in its heat transfer capacity, while significantly decreasing the failure probability. Furthermore, appropriately elevating the initial temperature contributes to a decreased likelihood of a break event occurring in the heat pipe. Under the assumption of a fixed heat source/sink temperature, enlarging the inner diameter of the heat pipe exerts negligible influence on the failure probability, yet substantially enhances its heat transfer capability. In summary, various parameters of the heat pipe exert considerable influence on both its safety performance and heat transfer performance. Consequently, the trade-off between these two aspects represents a critical consideration for heat pipe designers.

Asymptotic Representation of Vorticity and Dissipation Energy in the Flux Problem for the Navier–Stokes Equations in Curved Pipes

This study explores the problem of describing viscous fluid motion for Navier–Stokes equations in curved channels, which is important in applications like hemodynamics and pipeline transport. Channel curvature leads to vortex flows and closed vortex zones. Asymptotic models of the flux problem are useful for describing viscous fluid motion in long pipes, thus considering geometric parameters like pipe diameter and characteristic length. This study provides a representation for the vorticity vector and energy dissipation in the flow problem for a curved channel, thereby determining the magnitude of vorticity and energy dissipation depending on the channel’s central line curvature and torsion. The accuracy of the asymptotic formulas are estimated in terms of small parameter powers. Numerical calculations for helical tubes demonstrate the effectiveness of the asymptotic formulas.

Investigating two configurations of a heat exchanger in an Indirect Heating Integrated Collector Storage Solar Water Heating System (IHICSSWHS)

Water heating makes up 14% of domestic energy usage. Due to the environmental impact of energy usage, consumers need to be encouraged to use renewable energy sources such as solar energy. The indirect heating integrated collector storage solar water heater system (IHISSWHS) is one of the most economical systems. The objective of this study was to investigate ways to enhance the performance of this system to encourage many households using it. Two configurations of the system were studied; 16.2 m long double row heat exchanger (HX) and 8.1m and 10.8 m long single row HX. Inside pipe diameters were 10.7mm and 17.1 mm; using two flow rates 500 L/h and 650 L/h. The steady state continuity, momentum and energy equations were numerically solved, using FLUENT software. A standard k-ω turbulent model and surface to surface radiation was used. The system with 10.8 m long single row HX provided higher outlet temperature than the system with 16.2 m double row. Therefore, a significant reduction in cost and power usage can be achieved by using a single row HX. For both flow rates investigated, the larger diameter pipe need about five folds less power to run, with very little sacrifice of outlet temperature.

Pipeline sharing: Optimal design of downstream green ammonia supply systems integrating with multi-product pipelines

Green ammonia is a promising energy storage form with extremely high efficiency of hydrogen storage. Although the construction of green ammonia production facilities is rapidly progressing, there is still a lack of comprehensive consideration of the optimal design for supply systems. This paper prospectively explores a framework for the ammonia supply system under four scenarios considering multimodal transportation. Different mathematical models are developed, which incorporate special constraints such as pipe diameter, broken loops, etc., aiming at minimizing costs of transportation, construction and carbon treatment. In this framework, the economic, energy and environmental performance is evaluated to optimize the design of the supply system. The case study in China shows that different transportation modes can reduce economic costs by 60.93∼77.45 %, energy consumption by 18.4 ∼67.7 ktce, and carbon emissions by 23.3∼60.7 kt per year. A further novel finding is that the simultaneous usage of new liquid ammonia pipelines and multi-product pipelines for supply systems proves to be the most effective transportation mode. Sensitivity analyses are also conducted on regional production capacity expansion, liquid ammonia pipeline planning, and multi-product pipeline utilization. The results confirm that the scheme is stable under certain conditions. Finally, some recommendations are provided for the development of green ammonia industry.

Study of Steam Generation and Distribution in a Hospital to Improve Energy Efficiency Using Thermography, Ultrasound, and Gas Analyzer

This investigation analyzed the energy efficiency of a steam system in a hospital, considering the procedure in ASME EA-3-2009 standard. The obtained boiler energy efficiency was 80.29 %, by applying an energy balance, reaching 15.33 kW for heat losses in the distribution pipes. Two consistent improvement alternatives were proposed, starting by unifying the pipe diameter of the kitchen area of 5 m, generating a reduction of heat loss from 828 to 600 W, which represented a total annual energy saving of around 2.4 GJ/year. The investment cost is USD 47.40, considering the achievement of the break-even point after 9 months, where the insulation of the pipes with glass wool was considered second and it generated a reduction in losses of 5.98 kW, representing a total annual energy saving of about 62.91 GJ/year, which corresponds to approximately USD 1,672. The investment for pipe insulation with a length of 49 m was USD 462, considering the NPV calculation and the possible savings, and the break-even point was reached after approximately 4 months, indicating the economic benefit of applying the two improvement options proposed.

A Comprehensive Investigation of Deep Drawing Processes for a 2-Inch Diameter Dop-pipe Cap: Numerical and Experimental Analysis

The persistent challenges in material forming processes arise from recurrent issues encountered during the deep drawing process, particularly involving cracks and deviations from standard thickness dimensions. This article investigates the deep drawing process using both experimental and numerical methodologies. The experimental approach employs a 40-ton capacity power press machine, while the numerical method utilizes the ABAQUS student version software. SPCC-SD (JIS G3141) is the selected material for producing a Dop-pipe 2-inch diameter pipe cap in both approaches. Noteworthy findings include the highest positive and negative correlations observed in elements E 46 and E 48, with values of 0.715 and -0.933, respectively. Minimal disparities, averaging around 4.6% for all components, were evident between the experimental and numerical methodologies. The numerical approach yielded predictive results identifying potential issues in elements E 47 and E 48. This observation did not reveal instances of tearing failure but instead showcased an increase in thickness due to a higher axial force between the dies and punched-in components. The study successfully and accurately predicted product thickness for all components, presenting a contrast with outcomes obtained through the experimental method. Furthermore, this research advances the deep drawing process, extending its applicability to broader material forming applications and ultimately enhancing overall production process efficiency.

Reduction of pipe wall erosion by creating a vortex flow in anthracite powder pneumatic transport for power plants

From the total electricity generated in South Africa, about 85% is coal based. Coal powder is a solid fuel used in injectors for electricity production. The coal powder is extremely abrasive therefore it is important to maintain a minimum admissible flow speed. As the most severe pipe wall erosion takes place in bends, the most significant factor influencing wall erosion is the solid particle velocity. The aim of this research was to reduce the wall erosion through flow velocity control. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, showed that for the same velocity, the erosion is dependent on flow direction change and the ratio between the radius of the bend and pipe diameter. The reduction of flow velocity was achieved by subtracting a spiral volume, from the inner volume of a horizontal pipe, just before an upward or downward bend. The modified volume geometry generated a vortex flow in the bend, achieving a more even distribution of maximum erosion points over the bend surface. The wall erosion, expressed in mm–wall thickness loss/hour, in the modified volume decreased by about 28,8 % while the installation life expectancy increased significantly. Furthermore the bend radius was proved to influence the erosion magnitude and location.

Investigation of a new reverse drainage construction and the pressure-reducing effect of a tunnel in a water-rich karst location

It is quite simple to create cracking, leaking, and other disasters in the tunnel during operation because water-rich karst tunnels are subject to the action of the high head. If the drainage is not timely, this results in high-pressure water collection around the tunnel lining. The study was conducted depending on Tongzi Tunnel to resolve the issue of water pressure encountered by water-rich karst tunnel lining under high head action and to lessen the issue of operational tunnel illness under long-term water pressure. The mechanical reaction of the number of reverse drainage holes and the size of pipe diameter at the raised arch under various water heads on the tunnel construction was studied using model testing in combination with numerical simulation analysis. It was discovered that using the traditional drainage system would subject the supine arch to extremely high-water pressure, which is often hard to efficiently remove. The major issue causing the elevated arch bulging tragedy is that water pressure in the elevated arch increases as head height increases. High water pressure in the raised arch may be efficiently dealt with using the suggested reverse drainage approach. The pressure reduction rate compared to the traditional drainage method achieved 13.6 % for the investigation of the fractured Tongzi tunnel reverse drainage holes, which had a total of five holes with a diameter of roughly 100 mm. Reverse drainage structures have the potential to save project costs while also realizing “point to point” pressure reduction at the elevation arch of the tunnel and have positive effects on total tunnel pressure reduction. The study's findings can serve as a guide for designing and building comparable water-rich karst tunnel constructions as well as for maintaining drainage systems while they are in use.

Multi-objective design optimization of an in-pipe inspection robot

In addition to inspection, In-Pipe Inspection Robots (IPIRs) could be enabled to perform other tasks, such as object retrieval and blockage clearing. In this study, a new IPIR is proposed with a design aimed at expanding its range of potential applications beyond inspection. The design methodology followed to facilitate the aforementioned application expansion commences with the development of a parametric preliminary design of an IPIR, in which the sizing of the robot parts are determined based on an optimization problem formulated in this work. The multi-objective optimization problem maximizes two contradictory objective functions, namely, its payload capacity, and the range of pipe diameters in which it can fit (radial range). The problem's Pareto front is solved using the NSGA-II implemented by Matlab's gamultiobj(.). The robot's final design is selected based on one of the Pareto-optimal solutions obtained from the Pareto front with a theoretical payload capacity of 11 kg and a radial range of 33 mm. The robot was manufactured and tested to validate such theoretical results.

Experimental and modeling study on liquid film thickness of horizontal gas-liquid annular flow using ultrasonic method

In horizontal annular flow, the high gas velocity leads to the strong randomness, rapidity and complexity of the structure and dynamic characteristics of gas-liquid interfacial wave. As one of the important parameters to describe the interfacial wave, the liquid film thickness is significant to study the hydrodynamic characteristics of the gas-liquid two-phase flow. In this paper, the ultrasonic echo resonance main frequency (UERMF) method and the ultrasonic reference signal elimination (URSE) method are compared by numerical simulation method. The minimum liquid film thickness measured by these two methods are 0.3 mm and 0.01 mm, respectively. Experiments are conducted on a stainless steel test section with an inner diameter of 50.0 mm to study annular air-water flow under five different pressure conditions (from 0.1 MPa to 0.7 MPa). The experimental data is processed using the URSE method to analyze the characteristics of the liquid film under different operating conditions. In addition, based on the aforementioned experimental dataset, a comparison is made regarding the performance of existing predictive correlations. It is found that the existing correlations have certain limitations in capturing the variations of liquid film thickness in annular flow, particularly at high pressures and for different pipe diameters. Therefore, a new liquid film thickness correlation suitable for different system pressures and pipe diameters is proposed. By expanding the range of fitted data points (220 data points), the 95 % relative error of improved model is within ±25 % error band for all available data (authors' and literature). The mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) is 11.08 %. The improved correlation has the applicability and extrapolation for different system pressure and pipe diameter conditions.

Identification of a different design of a photovoltaic thermal collector based on fuzzy logic control and the ARMAX model

This study investigates the effects of absorber design on the performance of a water-based photovoltaic thermal collector (PVT). In this regard, three different absorber designs with the same pipe diameter and length were tested and compared experimentally in Cairo, Egypt, during summer 2021. Furthermore, artificial intelligence techniques were used to create a model to identify the PVT system and define the input–output relationship in state space representation. This is to get a more thorough understanding and deeper evaluation of the PVT performance with various absorber designs to achieve the best possible system performance under varied operating situations and weather. The fuzzy logic control is examined by Autoregression Moving Average using an external input model (ARMAX), which relies on the autoregression moving average to achieve system performance. According to the study's findings, at a maximum water flow rate of 3 L/min, the proposed PVT system can convert solar energy with an overall efficiency of 69.6 %, 64.6 %, and 63.5 %, respectively, with a pressure loss of about 29.5 kPa, 29.33 kPa, and 24.79 kPa for absorbers A, B, and C. Furthermore, the challenging suggested fuzzy control system for the PVT system provides knowledge to comprehend the system complexity since the connection is formed by connecting 5 inputs with 3 outputs through its representation in the state space representation.

Study on bearing characteristics of super-long and super-large diameter pipe piles in silt foundation of alluvial plain of Yellow River

In recent years, super-long and super-large diameter pipe piles have been gradually applied to the foundation in the Yellow River flood area. However, its bearing mechanism is not clear, especially the unclear bearing characteristics of the pile under the eccentric state, which limits its application and development. In this regard, this paper uses the method of combining field test and numerical simulation to analyze the bearing characteristics of super-long and super-large diameter pipe piles under different pile lengths, different pile diameters, different diameter-thickness ratios, and different offsets. Combined with the specific deviation form of the pipe pile, the calculation formula of the vertical ultimate bearing capacity of the super-long and super-long diameter pipe pile in the Yellow River flooding area under the influence of the construction effect is modified. The results show that when the length of the pipe pile changes, the vertical bearing capacity changes the most, and the vertical ultimate bearing capacity of the pipe pile increases linearly with the increase of the length of the pipe pile. When the wall thickness of the pipe pile increases, the vertical bearing capacity increases approximately linearly, but the reduction of the pile displacement decreases exponentially. The greater the deflection of the pipe pile, the smaller the vertical ultimate bearing capacity. When the deflection of the pipe pile is greater than 0.35°, the vertical ultimate bearing capacity decreases rapidly with the increase of the deflection. On the basis of the traditional formula, considering the deviation form of the pipe pile, the reduction coefficient of the bearing capacity correction formula of the super-long and super-large diameter pipe pile is proposed, and the correction formula is compared with the field example. It is proved that the formula can accurately calculate the bearing capacity of the super-long and super-large diameter pipe pile. The research results of this paper are of great significance to the application and promotion of super-long and super-large diameter pipe piles in the Yellow River flood area and the evaluation of vertical ultimate bearing capacity. At the same time, the research results of this paper can also provide a reference for the study of bearing characteristics of super-long and super-large diameter pipe piles in other foundations.

Numerical Simulation of Heat Transfer Characteristics of Capillary Radiant Heating Floor

In order to study the temperature transference characteristics of capillary radiant heating ground, a glowing temperature change flooring model is typically established to analyze the influence of different factors on the heat transfer characteristics of the heating system. The results show that the distribution of covering temperature is uneven in the radiant heating system, and the fluctuation amplitude increases with the increase of the pipe spacing. At the same time, the change of the surface temperature is further analyzed for the finishing layer material on the radiant heating storey. The results show that the change of the capillary tube spacing leads to a smaller change in the floor exterior temperature when the wood floor is used as the finishing layer. It accurately indicates that the wood floor as the finishing layer can allegedly provide a more balanced surface temperature. Finally, the effects of finishing the layer, filling layer material and pipe spacing are studied for the change of surface heat flux. The results show that the heating effect of 30°C quandary in capillary radiant heating system can merely reach that of 40°C hot water in heating structure with traditional pipe breadth when the finishing layer universally adopts floor tiles and the capillary pipe diameter is 10 mm. This suggests that the thin system can use low-temperature hot water for effective energy-saving heating. The above research results can thoughtfully provide theoretical guidance for radiant floor heating.

Optimization model the pipe diameter in the drinking water distribution network using multi-objective genetic algorithm

Optimization model the pipe diameter in the drinking water distribution network using multi-objective genetic algorithm

Parental Care and Nest Site Properties in the European Roller, Coracias Garrulus in a Novel Breeding Site

I investigated parental behavior and nest site occupancy of the European Roller, Coracias garrulus in a novel breeding site, retaining walls with numerous embedded 10 cm diameter pipes in 2020–2022 in northern Turkey, Corum. I also searched the literature to review parental behavior and length of parental care in egg and nestling stages in other members of the order Coraciiformes. European Rollers occupied 6 holes for 12 nesting attempts across three years. Nest height from the ground was 4.7 ± 0.3 m (n = 12). I video-recorded the nest holes in the early morning during the incubation and nestling periods for 22.9 and 25 hours in total, respectively. Males and females shared incubation and nestling provisioning tasks. Nest attentiveness was 97.9% ± 0.79. Average feeding rate of nestlings was 10.86 ± 2.15 trips h-1. Feeding rates increased from early (5.94 ± 1.09 h-1) to late (15.8 ± 2.04 h-1) nestling ages, significantly. Ultimately, the comparisons among species in the order showed that the vast majority of species were relatively similar in development times but that little data is available on parental behavior. The latter emphasizes the great need for more study of parental behavior in this order.

A simple and accurate model to predict pressure drop in vertical gas wells

ABSTRACT Predicting pressure drop in gas wells is one of the most important issues for designing deliquification technologies and optimizing gas production. Current pressure-drop prediction methods can be divided into analytical and empirical models. Although various models have been proposed to predict pressure drop in wellbores, no model has offered stable performance over wide liquid and gas flowrate ranges. Especially for gas wells with low liquid – gas ratios, very few models have been developed specifically. In this study, a simple and accurate three-point model is developed for predicting liquid holdup in wellbores. The model is based on the liquid holdups and gas velocities at the annular – churn, churn – slug and slug – bubble boundaries and is comprehensive for calculating the liquid holdup in vertical wellbores at different liquid/gas flowrates and pressures. The proposed method was verified with 39 collected laboratory and 182 field measured data points from the literature, which have wide parameter ranges. For comparison, some widely used models in the petroleum industry were also evaluated. In validation with the laboratory data with pipe diameters of 50.8 and 101.6 mm, although the new model has an average percentage error (E3) of 220.1% in the churn flow, ranking fourth of all the evaluated models, the other five indicators in the churn flow and six indicators in the annular flow are lowest of all these evaluated models, resulting in relative performance factors (RPFs) of 0.2 and 0, respectively. In the field measured data, gas and liquid productions range between 0.34 × 104—77.6 × 104 m3/d and 1—347.8 m3/d, tubinghead pressure ranges from 0.7 to 84.7 MPa, which can cover most gas wells. The validation demonstrates that the new model still has good performance with five indicators being lowest. The RPF of the new pressure-drop model in the field measured data ranges is 0.29, still lowest of all these evaluated models, showing better performance than these widely used models in petroleum industry for vertical gas wells. This indicates that the new model can accurately predict pressure drop under different conditions in vertical gas wells.

An experimental study on pressure drop of air-oil flow in horizontal pipes using two synthetic oils

This study focuses on the frictional pressure drop in gas-liquid two-phase flow, characterized by nonlinear behavior under various flow conditions due to complex two-phase phenomena. The experimental investigation involves an air-oil mixture flowing through horizontal pipes with diameters of 20 mm and 40 mm, aiming to observe the flow patterns and quantify the pressure drop. Two oils with different thermophysical properties are used as the liquid phase. The operating temperature and pressure of the test pipes are controlled within the range of 24–44°C and 1–3 bar, respectively. Seven air-oil flow patterns are identified based on visualization results: stratified smooth, stratified wavy, annular, plug, slug, bubbly, and dispersed bubble flows. On analyzing 1043 data points from the experiment, this study explores the effects of total mass velocity, flow quality, pipe diameter, operating temperature, operating pressure, and oil type on the frictional pressure gradient. Particular attention is given to the variation of the frictional pressure gradient concerning operating pressure, and its relationship with total mass velocity, flow quality, and flow pattern is discussed. Additionally, the study examines predictions from 55 previous correlations against the current pressure drop data. The predictive capability of these correlations is evaluated for the entire dataset and its subsets, categorized by oil type, pipe diameter, operating pressure, flow condition, total mass velocity, flow quality, and flow pattern. Evaluation metrics include mean absolute errors and the proportions of data points within 30% and 50% of absolute error. In addition, average and standard deviation values are calculated for each dataset to provide a comprehensive assessment.