Gas Pipe Research Articles

Design and Fabrication of Biogas Brooder System Utilizing Chicken Waste for Sustainable Poultry Farming

Sustainable agricultural practices are essential for addressing environmental degradation, resource depletion and energy inefficiency in traditional farming methods. One promising solution is integrating biogas technology with poultry farming, particularly in Nigeria, where poultry farming plays a crucial role in livelihoods and economic growth. This approach uses renewable energy sources, such as chicken manure, to generate biogas for heating poultry brooders, offering a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. The goal of this project is to design and develop an efficient, eco-friendly portable biogas brooder system specifically for poultry farms. The system includes a digester tank to produce biogas from chicken manure, PVC pipes for transporting slurry, a stirrer for mixing and a drainer valve to manage excess liquid. Biogas is transported through a gas pipe to abiogas container for storage, which is then used in a burner to generate heat. The design incorporates seals and gaskets to prevent leaks and utilizes cost-effective materials for construction. The system is estimated to produce enough energy to power the burner for 2 hours daily, demonstrating its potential to improve operational efficiency, reduce costs and promote sustainable practices in poultry farming.

Gas Pipe Leakage Inspection Robot with Real Time Monitoring System

In this Review paper the study focusses on Pipe inspection robots,robots are advanced devices engineered to traverse the interiors of pipelines, assessing conditions and identifying issues like leaks, corrosion, or blockages in industries such as oil and gas, water supply, and sewage. Equipped with high-resolution cameras, sensors, and diagnostic tools, these robots offer detailed, real-time data to support preventive maintenance and reduce manual inspection challenges. Recent developments focus on improving robot agility, compactness, and durability, enabling them to handle varied pipe diameters and complex pathways. Enhanced with wireless connectivity and artificial intelligence, some models can now perform autonomous navigation and defect detection, significantly boosting efficiency and safety. This review examines current innovations, operational hurdles, and future advancements in pipe inspection robotics, with a particular emphasis on smarter navigation systems and sensor technology to enhance inspection accuracy and dependability.

A Comparative Study on the Performance of Ice-Source Heat Pumps Versus Other Heat Source Heat Pumps: A Case Study in the UK

Eliminating natural gas as a fuel for heating residential and industrial units is crucial for reducing environmental pollutants. The challenge lies in finding alternative heating systems and repurposing existing infrastructures, like gas pipes. This article presents a new approach to supplying energy to heat pumps in a post-natural gas era using repurposed gas pipes to transport water for ice-source heat pumps. It highlights the advantages of ice-source heat pumps and compares their thermal performance with other types. The proposed system integrates ice-source and geothermal heat pumps, offering space efficiency, compact design, cost-effective centralization, optimized subsidies, seasonal cooling, weather resilience, and eliminates the need for new piping.This study evaluates heat pump efficiency using various low-grade heat sources: ambient air, ground, domestic wastewater, river and lake water, piped water, and latent heat. It focuses on optimizing heat pump performance under the UK's climatic conditions, addressing efficiency challenges during peak cold periods. The research demonstrates the system's robust performance in cold, densely populated areas, potentially reducing water mass for energy supply by up to 95% with a 70% ice slurry concentration. Additionally, the ice-source heat pump requires about 36.7 times less water volume than traditional systems for residential heating.

Investigation on the methane emissions from permeation of urban gas polyethylene pipes under the background of hydrogen-mixed natural gas transportation

Methane, a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, aggravates the greenhouse effect of ecological environment through its emissions. When transporting hydrogen-mixed natural gas through urban polyethylene pipes, methane will be emitted due to the permeation characteristic of polyethylene pipe material. Therefore, it is crucial to pay attention to the methane emissions from permeation of polyethylene pipes for protecting the environment and climate. In this paper, the solubility and diffusion coefficients of methane within hydrogen-mixed natural gas in polyethylene pipe materials are calculated through the Monte Carlo method and molecular dynamics simulation to determine the permeation coefficient of methane. Simultaneously, the methane emissions and equivalent carbon dioxide emissions of the hydrogen-mixed natural gas in polyethylene pipes are investigated. Results indicate the methane solubility coefficient decreases with increasing temperature and hydrogen mixing ratio. The methane diffusion and permeation coefficients increase with the rising temperature and pressure, and decreasing hydrogen mixing ratio. The pressure exerts minor influence while the temperature and hydrogen mixing ratio have more significant impact. That is, the lower the temperature and the higher the hydrogen mixing ratio, the less methane emissions caused by permeation. Therefore, the effective reduction of methane emissions can be achieved by adding the insulation layer to mitigate the impact of high temperature and increasing the hydrogen mixing ratio. For example, for the polyethylene pipe with the operating pressure of 4 bar and the size specification of SDR11, when the temperature drops from 300 K to 260 K, the methane emissions of hydrogen-mixed natural gas with hydrogen mixing ratios of 0 vol%, 20 vol%, 50 vol% and 80 vol% will be drastically reduced by 73.3%, 74.4%, 77.2% and 78.5% respectively, and when 20 vol%∼80 vol% hydrogen are mixed in the natural gas at 260 K, 300 K and 310 K, the methane emissions will be effectively reduced by 26.7%∼85.6%, 23.3%∼82.1% and 23.9%∼82.4% respectively. The findings of this study can serve as guidance for reducing the methane emissions from permeation of polyethylene pipes transporting hydrogen-mixed natural gas.

PE Gas Pipeline Defect Detection Algorithm based on Improved YOLO v5

In order to improve defects detection efficiency in polyethylene (PE) gas pipelines and decrease leakage or other pipelines abnormalities in operation, this research proposed an improved YOLO(You Only Look Once) v5 detection model. First, the collected pipeline defect images were processed in grey scale, which improved the computational efficiency of the computer; then, Gamma transform and double filtering algorithms were applied respectively for image enhancement and noise reduction filtering of defects, which enhanced image quality and reduced image noise. Finally, the improved Sobel algorithm was applied to detect defective image edges and the defects in the image were segmented by adaptive threshold segmentation method to obtain binary images. The obtained binary images were employed to train the improved YOLO v5 detection model. The obtained experimental results showed that, compared with the original algorithm, the improved detection algorithm had better detection efficiency and higher robustness as well as higher recognition for common defects,improved YOLOv5 mAP and recall were 97.18% and 98.03%, respectively, the mAP has increased by 1.33% and the recall has increased by 3.83%,which can achieve the detection and identification of defect types of effects in PE gas pipes.

Enhanced performance of cyclone separator through coupling of centrifugal force, electrostatic force and particle pre-charge

The electrostatic enhancement can effectively improve the performance of cyclone separator at low load or high-temperature, but its application is limited owing to the reduction of spark voltage in high-temperature. Aiming at this question, a new technology coupling centrifugal force, electrostatic force and particle pre-charge was proposed. The characteristics of particles charging and agglomeration were analyzed, and the influence of different factors on the change of particle partition number concentration and total removal efficiency of cyclone separator were studied. The results showed that, increasing the charge generator voltage and decreasing the main pipe gas velocity can increase the particles charge quantity and improve agglomeration, which is benefit for the efficiency improvement of either cyclone separator or electrostatic cyclone separator, especially at low inlet gas velocity. Higher charge generator voltage and lower inlet gas velocity, more obvious efficiency improvement. The total removal efficiency can be increased by up to 10 % and 9 % respectively for the cyclone separator and electrostatic cyclone separator because of particle pre-charge at 10 m/s of inlet gas velocity, and the removal efficiency of fine particles can also be effectively improved. Comparing with the electrostatic cyclone separator, achieving the same total removal efficiency, the internal voltage can be reduced 16 kV through particle pre-charge. The electrostatic force and centrifugal force were the main factor of the small particles and big particles removal, respectively.

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The CMS detector, including its muon system, has been operating at the CERN LHC in increasingly challenging conditions for about 15 years. The muon detector was designed to provide excellent triggering and track reconstruction for muons produced in proton–proton collisons at an instantaneous luminosity (L\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\mathcal {L}$$\\end{document}) of 1×1034\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$1 \ imes 10^{34}$$\\end{document} cm-2\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$^{-2}$$\\end{document}s-1\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$^{-1}$$\\end{document}. During the Run 2 data-taking period (2015–2018), the LHC achieved an instantaneous luminosity of twice its design value, resulting in larger background rates and making the efficient detection of muons more difficult. While some backgrounds result from natural radioactivity, cosmic rays, and interactions of the circulating protons with residual gas in the beam pipe, the dominant source of background hits in the muon system arises from proton–proton interactions themselves. Charged hadrons leaving the calorimeters produce energy deposits in the muon chambers. In addition, high-energy particles interacting in the hadron calorimeter and forward shielding elements generate thermal neutrons, which leak out of the calorimeter and shielding structures, filling the CMS cavern. We describe the method used to measure the background rates in the various muon subsystems. These rates, in conjunction with simulations, can be used to estimate the expected backgrounds in the High-Luminosity LHC. This machine will run for at least 10 years starting in 2029 reaching an instantaneous luminosity of L=5×1034cm-2s-1\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\mathcal {L} = 5 \ imes \ ext {10}^\ ext {34}\\,\ ext {cm}^\ ext {-2}\\,\ ext {s}^\ ext {-1}$$\\end{document} and increasing ultimately to L=7.5×1034cm-2s-1\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\mathcal {L} = 7.5 \ imes \ ext {10}^\ ext {34}\\,\ ext {cm}^\ ext {-2}\\,\ ext {s}^\ ext {-1}$$\\end{document}. These background estimates have been a key ingredient for the planning and design of the muon detector upgrade.

Modeling of high-pressure transient gas-liquid flow in M-shaped jumpers of subsea gas production systems

Two-phase flow with low liquid loads is common in high-pressure natural gas offshore gathering and transmission pipelines. During gas production slowdowns or shutdowns, an accumulation of liquid in the lower sections of subsea pipelines may occur. This phenomenon is observed in jumpers that connect different units in deep-water subsea gas production facilities. The displacement of the accumulated liquid during production ramp-up induces temporal variations in pressure drop across the jumper and forces on its elbows, resulting in flow-induced vibrations (FIV) that pose potential risks to the structural integrity of the jumper. To bridge the gap between laboratory experiments and field conditions, transient 3D numerical simulations were conducted using the OpenFOAM software. These simulations facilitated the development of a mechanistic model to elucidate the factors contributing to increased pressure and forces during the liquid purging process. The study examined the influence of gas pressure level, pipe diameter, initially accumulated liquid amount, liquid properties, and gas mass flow rate on the transient pressure drop and the forces acting on the jumper's elbows. The critical gas production rate required for complete liquid removal of the accumulated liquid was determined, and scaling rules were proposed to predict the effects of gas pressure and pipe diameter on this critical value. The dominant frequencies of pressure and force fluctuations were identified, with low-pressure systems exhibiting frequencies associated with two-phase flow phenomena and high-pressure systems showing frequencies attributed to acoustic waves.

Cathodic Protection Potential Distribution and Anode Ground Bed Optimization Scheme for Low-pressure City Gas Pipe

ABSTRACT The low-pressure gas pipes in some old residence communities of China are often electrically connected to each other and groundings, which brings about great challenges to the design of cathodic protection (CP) system due to large CP current consumption and attenuation effects. The field tests on potential distribution of three types of anode ground beds were conducted, including deep well auxiliary anode ground bed, shallow auxiliary anode ground bed far from gas pipes, and shallow auxiliary anode ground bed close to gas pipes. The results showed that, the shallow auxiliary anode ground bed close to gas pipe provided more protection with less current than other two types of ground bed. Numerical simulations on CP potential distribution of different anode ground beds were conducted and the boundary conditions were determined by inversion calculation based on field tests. Based on the field test and numerical simulation results, the anode ground bed suitable for CP of low-pressure gas pipes electrically connected to groundings is the shallow auxiliary anode ground bed close to gas pipes and the optimized distribution scheme for shallow anode ground beds were proposed.

A review of recent advances and applications of inorganic coating for oil and gas pipe systems

The oil and gas pipe systems are a crucial part of the infrastructure. The structural integrity of pipes is diminishing as a result of environmental damage. In recent years, the oil and gas industry has witnessed significant advancements in the development and application of inorganic coatings for pipeline systems. These coatings are essential for enhancing the durability, safety, and efficiency of pipelines by providing superior resistance to corrosion, abrasion, and chemical attacks. This review paper delves into the latest fabrication strategies for API pipe coatings, with a focus on the electroless method, electrodeposition method, thermal spray method, thermochemical method, and other emerging techniques. Each method is evaluated in terms of its principles, advantages, limitations, and suitability for different operational environments. Among the coating methods, the electroless process is one of the most popular methods. The paper also highlights innovative approaches and materials that have the potential to revolutionize the field. By providing a comprehensive overview of current technologies and their applications, this review aims to guide future research and development efforts, promoting the adoption of advanced inorganic coatings in the oil and gas industry to ensure the longevity and integrity of critical infrastructure.

Design and Calculation of Products from Composite Materials Using Software

This article analyzes six types of composite pipes that are good replacements for corrosive steel and metal pipes for oil, gas, and water. The analysis of the six samples of composite pipes was done using the software program Hoffman Engineering, which is intended for the design and calculation of various types of products made of composite materials. For the analysis of the six composite pipes, the same diameter and the same length were taken, and variable parameters are: the type of material from which the composite pipes are made (carbon/epoxy, carbon-glass/epoxy and glass/epoxy), and the angle of winding of the fibers (10º and 90º degrees). Using the Hoffman Engineering software package, an analysis of the durability of the six differently designed composite pipes at high internal pressure was performed. The same conclusion was obtained from all analyses: the high internal pressure resistance of composite pipes is highly dependent on the fiber winding angle and the type of fibers used. Composite pipes obtained with a fiber winding angle of 90º have twice the internal pressure resistance compared to composite pipes obtained with a fiber winding angle of 10º. Composite pipes based on carbon fibers have the highest resistance to internal pressure, then composite pipes based on hybrid materials (glass and carbon fibers) and finally composite pipes based on glass fibers. Finally, a comparison was made with the obtained laboratory results for the same composite pipes. The same conclusion was obtained from all analyses: the high internal pressure resistance of composite pipes is highly dependent on the fiber winding angle and the type of fibers used. The composite pipes obtained by this process are durable and resistant to very high pressures.

Operation Optimization of Natural Gas Pipe Network Considering Energy Metering

Operation Optimization of Natural Gas Pipe Network Considering Energy Metering

The failure mechanism of field polyethylene gas pipeline with gas leakage at electrofusion joint

PurposeA section of in-service PE gas pipeline in Guocun, Beijing, was found to appear gas leaking at the electrofusion (EF) joint. This study is dedicated to reveal the material cause of EF joint failure to help with a more accurate prediction of service life of PE gas pipe and further normalize the construction of PE gas pipeline.Design/methodology/approachDefect detection was carried out on the leaking EF joint using ultrasonic phased array. The mechanical degradation and structural aging behavior was studied by tension test, FTIR technology, TG test and DSC test. The organic components in the soil surrounding the PE gas pipe failure area were qualitatively identified.FindingsThe results showed that the organic surfactants in the soil environment could accelerate the aging behavior of PE material, leading to a deterioration of mechanical properties and a serious reduction in the ability of the PE pipe and EF joint, especially at the welding defect, to resist external force.Originality/valueA novel study was conducted to investigate the failure cause of the EF joint of in-service PE gas pipe, incorporating the analysis of environmental factors and structural deterioration.

A model-based framework to prevent excavator induced damage in operations on natural gas pipelines

Despite the presence of numerous safety precautions, the primary cause of damage to underground pipes is often attributed to external interference from excavators during their operations. To address this issue, this paper introduces a model-based approach that incorporates both static and dynamic contact in assessing the damage caused by excavators on pipes. The objective of this method is to offer a practical tool that can assist in determining the appropriate excavator size for buried gas pipes. By identifying the maximum safe excavator size, the aim is to minimize the potential risks of mechanical damage to the pipe, to prevent hazards for operators and to protect the integrity of the pipeline. For this purpose, a comprehensive excavator model is constructed. Following this, a suitable damage model for the pipe is selected and the interaction between the bucket tooth and the pipe is modelled. To enhance accuracy, the excavator and pipe are interconnected through the solution of damped contact equations, which take into account the stiffnesses of both the pipe and excavator, as well as the damping effect resulting from pipe deformation. Results provide valuable insight into the potential damage caused to the pipe, which can be attributed to either static or dynamic contacts, depending on which excavator is being used. Failure is addressed by plastic dent, that can be avoided by selecting the most suitable excavator size. Moreover, the analysis of dent depth caused by various excavators on different pipes for gas transmission, opens to the possibility of mitigating the risk of failures by limiting the excavator workspace.

Three-Dimensional Visualization Of The Behavior Of Solid Particles Traveling In A Horizontal Gas Pipe Flow By Color PTV Using Discontinuously Changing Hue Illumination

In a gas pipe, a lot of solid particles remained during its construction. They are called dust and gas supply companies have tried to remove them using filters because they cause various problems. To optimize the maintenance period of dust removal filters, it is required to understand the behaviors of particles in the pipe. However, we do not fully understand yet because of their very complex behaviors caused by dune accumulated in the pipe. Furthermore, it is hard to investigate their behaviors with a traditional volumetric PTV using multiple cameras. Normally, its calibration is difficult because of the curvature of the pipe and the plural number of cameras. Therefore, we developed a new volumetric color PTV algorithm with discontinuously changing color illumination in the camera shooting direction, i.e. the depth direction. Color PTV can determine particle positions in three dimensions using a single camera but has low depth accuracy. Our new PTV measures particle positions and velocity vectors in the plane of picture using the same algorithm used in the normal planar PTV. On the other hand, particle positions and velocity vectors in the camera shooting direction are measured by a pattern of color changing on particle scattering light, which is our original method. To adopt the new volumetric PTV in the pipe flow, a volumetric light changing color discontinuously in the flow direction was irradiated and the particles were visualized using a camera installed at the outlet of the pipe. When a dune exists, the particles are thrown to the top of the pipe and their advection velocity is increased by the wakes generated by the dune. As a result, the dune makes more particles to be advected to a longer distance.

Improving safety design for gas pipeline installation via horizontal directional drilling: a pipe stress analysis approach

Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) has today emerged as a significant and efficient Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) has today emerged as a significant and efficient technique for installing pipelines for a variety of purposes, including the production of oil, natural gas, water, sewer, electrical, and telecommunications. Due to the complexity of the technology and the intricate interplay of numerous processes, the safety risks associated with process uncertainty are substantial. However, risk analysis for HDD projects is generally done using qualitative methods. One of the most common factors used for HDD risk assessment is Pipe Stress Analysis (PSA). In this article, a combination of material evaluation and PSA for HDD safety design is suggested to improve the risk analysis. The evaluation will commence with an assessment of the material, followed by an examination of the wall thickness. Subsequently, an analysis of HDD design and pipe stress will be conducted. Using 10-inch API 5L Gr. B pipe, the safety design was successfully tested for a gas pipe project. When using HDD, a natural bend value of no less than 415.3 meters must have a horizontal length of 168 meters. According to the curvature, the length of the entire pipe is 169.03 meters. The combined installation stress was less than 1, while the combined operation stress was 114.87 MPa. These two values met the criteria specified in the standard. Overall, those steps were able to ensure that the HDD installation design is safe for construction.

Comparison of chain structures between special polyethylene resins for natural gas pipes by preparative temperature rising elution fractionation and cross-fractionation

Comparison of chain structures between special polyethylene resins for natural gas pipes by preparative temperature rising elution fractionation and cross-fractionation

Smart LPG Regulator

The Smart LPG Regulator is designed to oversee the regulation of pressurized steel gas cylinders in residential households. The primary goal of this project is to prevent the potential risks associated with LPG gas leaks, including the loss of life, injuries, and health concerns. The system is equipped to identify gas leaks and issue auditory and visual alerts through a buzzer, a display, and a servo motor, which promptly closes the gas cylinder regulator to terminate the gas supply. The LPG Gas Detector (MQ6) is a suitable sensor with high sensitivity to Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), including propane, proficient, isobutene, and natural gas. It is also capable of detecting easily flammable gases, mainly methane. Data collected by the MQ6 sensor is processed by the Atmega 328P microcontroller and presented through the output components. The LCD screen will display 'GAS LEAK,' the buzzer will sound an alarm, and the servo motor will continue to close the regulator valve on the gas cylinder. The MQ6 sensor can identify gas leaks from the gas cylinder, gas pipes, or kitchen stove burners. One significant advantage of this system is its ability to shut off the gas cylinder supply, indirectly preventing accidents and injuries. The system's design is tailored to accommodate the standard size of gas cylinders used in residential homes, with domestic consumers as the target user group.

Design and performance study of gas–liquid separation–mixing device for electric submersible pump in high-gas-content oil wells

In the process of oil production, wells containing gas can impact the efficiency of electric submersible pump (ESP), potentially causing gas lock. This issue can lead to the loss of lifting capacity in ESP, affecting the normal production of oil wells. To address this problem, the concept of gas separation before mixing transportation has been proposed, and a gas–liquid separation–mixing device has been designed. Experimental tests on the gas–liquid two-phase flow under various working conditions were conducted. A numerical model of the physical process was developed and validated with the experimental results. The results indicate that when the inlet flow rate exceeds 8.75 m3/h, the gas phase can be effectively accumulated in the center of the main pipeline after flowing through the guide vanes, thereby achieving efficient gas–liquid separation. Centrifugal number, which is defined as the ratio of axial flux of centrifugal force to axial flux of gravity, was proposed for evaluating the flow characteristics. When the centrifugal number exceeds 6.5, a high-quality gas core is formed in the pipe. At high inlet gas content, the volume fraction of gas in the main pipe initially decreases to 2% as the flow rate increases to 15 m3/h. However, at a flow rate of 30 m3/h, the volume fraction gradually rises to 30%, which results in a significant amount of gas being forced into the main pipe. The results are beneficial for expanding the use of ESP and improving the lifting efficiency in the development of oil field with high gas content.

Adaptive denoising for pipe leak vibroacoustic in multiple conditions using correlation coefficient matrix and multi-objective optimization

To achieve adaptive denoising of pipe leak vibroacoustic under low signal to noise ratio (SNR), a novel method based on correlation coefficient matrix was proposed for selecting the effective mode components obtained using variational mode decomposition (VMD). For the leak signals detected under different conditions, new indicators were designed to evaluate the denoising performance without using the prior knowledge of pure signals, and they were introduced as the objective function of multi-objective grey wolf optimizer (MOGWO). Subsequently, the best mode number K and penalty factor η of VMD were determined according to Pareto front, thus achieving adaptive denoising under multi-condition. To verify the proposed method, an experimental rig was built to simulate gas pipe leaks under multiple conditions with a SNR range from – 8 dB to 4 dB. The results showed that the proposed VMD-based denoising method achieved using the improved MOGWO can effectively suppress noise.