Pinot Noir Wines Research Articles

SENSORY ANALYSIS OF BURGUNDY PINOT NOIR WINES: A COMPARISON OF ORTHONASAL AND RETRONASAL PROFILING

Thirty Burgundy Pinot noir wines were evaluated by quantitative descriptive profile by nose (BN) and by mouth (BM) separately, by a trained panel composed of 12 judges. A specific vocabulary of 20 terms was developed. Sensory results were analyzed and compared by univariate and multivariate statistical techniques. Principal component analyses of the mean ratings BN and BM were fairly comparable regarding correlation among variables and the position of the wines. However, five sensory characteristics seem to be more intensely perceived BM, against 6 BN. Panel discrimination of the wines and panel repeatability in the measure were found to be slightly better BN than BM. A further canonical discriminant analysis on the data confirmed that panelists could well differentiate groups of wines from the same winemaker, probably corresponding to different style of winemaking.

Method development and cultivar-related differences of nine biogenic amines in Ontario wines

We have developed a new high-performance liquid chromatographic method using pre-column derivatization with orthophthalaldehyde, gradient elution and fluorescence detection to assay the concentrations of nine biogenic amines in wines: histamine, 1-methylhistamine, methylamine, ethylamine, tyramine, tryptamine, 2-phenylethylamine, putrescine and cadaverine. The method shows excellent analytical characteristics. It has been used to measure the concentration of these biogenic amines in 73 monovarietal wines from five red and six white cultivars. All wines were from the Niagara viticultural region of southern Ontario and were certified as to origin. Pinot noir wines had the highest content of total amines, and also of histamine, putrescine, cadaverine, ethylamine and 1-methylhistamine. Among the white wines, those from Chardonnay had the highest content of total amines and also of histamine, tyramine, methylamine and 1-methylhistamine. It is suggested that longer ageing as well as Sur-lie fermentation (Chardonnay) can account, at least in part, for these findings.

Toward the Fingerprinting of Wines: Cultivar-Related Patterns of Polyphenolic Constituents in Ontario Wines

The concentrations of 15 polyphenols (the phenolic acids gentisic, vanillic, ferulic, m-coumaric, p-coumaric, caffeic, and gallic acid; the trihydroxystilbenes cis- and trans-resveratrol and cis- and trans-polydatin; and the flavonoids, catechin, epicatechin, quercetin, and morin) were measured in wines from a range of white (Chardonnay, Riesling, Seyval Blanc, Vidal) and red (Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Gamay Noir) cultivars grown in the viticultural region of Niagara, ON, Canada, to determine whether significant and characteristic differences in the content and relative patterns of individual polyphenols could be identified among the wines of various cultivars. An assay involving solid-phase extraction followed by derivatization and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry was used to quantify the polyphenols. Overlapping values between red and white wines were observed for gentisic, ferulic, p-coumaric, and caffeic acid; the concentrations of the other polyphenols were 5−20-fold higher in red wines, apart from m-coumaric acid and morin, which could not be detected in any of these wines. Ferulic acid was the highest of all phenolic acids in Riesling wine; in wines from the other three white grape cultivars, caffeic acid and p-coumaric acid were the highest, with caffeic acid being the highest in Chardonnay and Vidal wines and p-coumaric acid in those from Seyval Blanc. The latter had the lowest mean total phenolic acid concentration (0.035 mmol/L) compared with Chardonnay, Vidal, and Riesling (0.052, 0.066, and 0.075 mmol/L, respectively). The individual phenolic acids demonstrated a similar pattern among all of the red wines analyzed, with gallic acid being the highest and caffeic acid the second highest. Their mean total phenolic acid concentrations spanned a narrow range from 0.200 mmol/L (Gamay Noir) to 0.250 mmol/L (Pinot Noir). Of the hydroxystilbene components, Pinot Noir wines were notable in having by far the highest polydatin concentrations, whereas their concentrations of free resveratrol isomers were among the lowest in this study. Of the flavonoid components, Pinot Noir wines were highest in catechin and epicatechin concentrations, whereas wines from Cabernet Sauvignon that were lowest in the latter two flavonoids had the highest quercetin concentrations. Keywords: Phenolic acids; hydroxystilbenes; flavonoids; gas chromatography/mass spectrometry; Vitaceae

Changes in Anthocyanins and Color Characteristics of Pinot Noir Wines during Different Vinification Processes

Simple and polymeric anthocyanins of Pinot noir wines produced by different vinification processes were monitored by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) from the onset of fermentation to bottling. Color characteristics were determined by tristimulus measurement using a spectrophotometer with a color determination and match program. Up to 12 individual polymeric anthocyanins were found. Extraction of monomeric anthocyanins was increased with higher fermentation temperature, but anthocyanin concentration declined gradually after fermentation. In all wines, the dominant type of anthocyanin was malvidin 3-glucoside. In contrast, the content of polymeric anthocyanins increased during fermentation and thereafter, and reached the highest concentrations at bottling. Fermentation temperature was a critical factor for formation of polymeric anthocyanins. The presence of total or individual polymeric anthocyanins was directly related to wine color intensity, and all the polymeric anthocyanins were importan...

Effects of Malolactic Fermentation on Sensory Properties of Four Burgundy Wines

The Burgundy wines studied for this paper were made with Chardonnay and Pinot noir grapes harvested in 1991 and 1992 and evaluated in May 1994. When examining the results of triangle tests (12 judges, 4 repetitions), the differences between MLF and no-MLF wines were low, but they were significant. As expected, the no-MLF wines, except for the 1991 Pinot, were perceived more acid than the MLF wines. Furthermore, pair tests showed MLF changed the aromatic profile of wines, but only slightly. The Chardonnay wines were perceived higher in hazelnut, fresh bread, and dried fruit aromas, whereas Pinot noir wines lost part of their berry notes in favor of animal and vegetable notes. On the contrary, the absence of MLF kept specific aromas such as apple and grapefruit-orange in Chardonnay and strawberry-raspberry in Pinot noir.

Some Effects of Processing Enzymes on Anthocyanins and Phenolics in Pinot noir and Cabernet Sauvignon Wines

Pinot noir and Cabernet Sauvignon wines were made using four commercial enzyme preparations along with controls. Total monomeric anthocyanin and individual pigments changes were monitored throughout wine-making and storage using spectrophotometric and HPLC methods. A complete phenolic profile of the wines was determined at the completion of fermentation by HPLC. Three of the enzyme treated Pinot noir wines contained significantly less total monomeric anthocyanin than control (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.05) and decreased amounts of the major pigment, malvidin-3-glucoside. Pigment changes were less pronounced in the Cabernet Sauvignon wines as compared to Pinot noir. Two enzyme treated Cabernet Sauvignon wines contained less (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.05) malvidin-3-glucoside, 3-glucosylacetate, and 3-glucosylcoumarate, than did the control. One of the enzymes appeared to hydrolyze quercetin glucuronide with a concomitant rise in the aglycon, <i>trans</i>-Resveratrol content increased in all enzyme treated wines and those that had the greatest resveratrol content also contained the greatest quantity of quercetin aglycon. Enzymes appeared to contain varying degrees of an esterase activity as shown by the cleavage of tartaric acid from caffeoyl tartrate to form caffeic acid. These activities occurred in both Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot noir

Influence of Vinification Treatments on Aroma Constituents and Sensory Descriptors of Pinot noir Wines

Three vinification methods were compared to assess their effects on chemical composition, sensory descrip- tors, and headspace volatile constituents of Pinot noir wines. Two methods involved standard vinification at fermentation temperatures of 20°C (VM1) and 30°C (VM2), respectively, while the third method (VM3) included a two-stage pre-fermentation treatment involving heat extraction, followed by fermentation at 15°C in contact with bentonite. VM2 produced wines with highest color intensity, currant aroma, and currant flavor. VM3 wines, however, contained twice the concentration of anthocyanins of VM1 and VM2 wines, and possessed the most intense fruity aroma and flavor. Total ester concentration was four-fold higher in VM3 compared to VM1 and VM2. Several esters were responsible for this difference but isoamyl acetate was particularly dominant.

Sensory and compositional profiles of British Columbia Chardonnay and Pinot noir wines

Sensory and compositional analyses were used to profile (i) 1993 Chardonnay wines ( n = 16), (ii) 1988–1993 Chardonnay wines ( n = 25) and (iii) 1992–1993 Pinot noir wines ( n = 14) from British Columbia (B.C.). All wines were analyzed for titratable acidity, pH, absorbance, phenol and alcohol content. In a series of three experiments, 10 judges evaluated colour, aroma and flavour attributes of all wines in duplicate. Principal component analysis of the sensory data for 1993 Chardonnay wines indicated a diversity of styles including wines which were both oaky and buttery to those which were intensely fruity. Wines with oaky character had greater complexity and deeper colour, while those with fruity character were sweeter and more perfumed. Discriminant analysis indicated that, in general, the 1992–1993 vintages were more fruity than the 1988–1991 vintages which were more yellow and had higher oak and diacetyl characters. Discriminant analysis also showed specific winery “styles”. While some wineries produced fruity, floral wines and others produced wines which were more yellow, oaky, buttery and astringent. Principal component analysis of the sensory data for the Pinot noir wines indicated four major styles of B.C. wines: those which were complex with high fruit and berry flavours, those which were intensely red, oaky, astringent and spicy, those which were herbaceous, and those which lacked fruit/berry character, astringency and body.

Fruit Environment and Crop Level Effects on Pinot noir. III. Composition and Descriptive Analysis of Oregon and British Columbia Wines

Pinot noir vines growing in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia (BC) and near Alpine, Oregon (OR), were subjected to three canopy management treatments [10 shoots/m row, 20 shoots/m row, Scott Henry (vertical canopy division) with 10-shoots/m canopy; 15-shoots/m row in OR only] in combination with two crop levels (full crop, half crop) in a factorialized treatment arrangement. BC wine titratable acidity (TA) and pH were reduced slightly by Scott Henry training in two of three years, but anthocyanins increased in Scott Henry wines in only one of three years. OR ethanol and wine TA increased (1 of 2 years) and pH decreased (2 of 2 years) with increasing shoot density, while Scott Henry training increased both ethanol and anthocyanins and reduced TA and pH compared to non-divided canopies. Reducing crop level increased ethanol and anthocyanins in OR wines, but BC half-crop wines had higher TA, pH, anthocyanins, and ethanol. BC wines from 1989, 1991, and 1992, and the 1990 and 1991 OR vintages were assessed by consensus-type descriptive analysis by a BC sensory panel. The tasters were able to distinguish between canopy treatments and/or crop levels in the 1989 wines using these descriptors: vegetative (aroma and flavor); black pepper aroma; chocolate aroma; and astringency. The 1991 and 1992 BC wines and the 1990 and 1991 OR wines were distinguished using cherry, berry, anise, bell pepper, and grassy aromas; cherry, currant, berry, and bell pepper flavors; color, astringency, and aftertaste (finish). Means of the five vintages from both wine regions indicated that clove, bell pepper, and grassy aromas were least in 10-shoots/m and Scott Henry canopy treatments. Cherry and anise aromas were also highest in Scott Henry wines, but many flavors, color, and finish were not increased by vertical canopy division. Scott Henry trellising is nonetheless recommended for situations where high vine vigor may contribute to vegetative aromas and flavors in Pinot noir wines. Reducing crop level increased color, currant aroma, astringency, and intensity of finish independent of canopy treatment.

Performance and diacetyl production of commercial strains of malolactic bacteria in wine

This study compares 11 commercial cultures of Leuconostoc oenos and Lactobacillus plantarum in Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir and Chardonnay wines. Performance of the cultures was found to be greatly influenced by wine type. Better survival of the bacteria was observed in Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir wines. The time necessary to complete malolactic fermentation (MLF) was 65 ± 14 d for Chardonnay, 71 ± 3 d for Cabernet Sauvignon, and 25 ± 8 d for Pinot Noir. The maximal rate of malate utilization was 0·4 g d‐1 for Pinot Noir, and 0·2 g d‐1 for the two other wine types. Final diacetyl concentration was lower in Chardonnay wines (highest 0·58 mg l‐1) compared to the other wines (highest 5·8 mg l‐1). Malic and citric acid were co‐metabolized by all strains. None of the strains metabolized glycerol. Significant differences in final diacetyl concentration of wine vinified with the different strains were found. Panelists could reliably differentiate MLF wines from non‐MLF wines, irrespective of their diacetyl content, indicating that diacetyl is not the only important MLF flavour.

Ethyl Anthranilate, Ethyl Cinnamate, 2,3-Dihydrocinnamate, and Methyl Anthranilate: Four Important Odorants Identified in Pinot noir Wines of Burgundy

Ethyl anthranilate (ethyl 2-aminobenzoate), ethyl cinnamate (ethyl 3-phenyl-2-propenoate), ethyl 2,3-dihydrocinnamate (ethyl 3-phenylpropanoate), and methyl anthranilate (methyl 2-aminobenzoate) were identified, by coupled gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analysis, as minor constituents in Burgundy Pinot noir wines. The four potent odorants were identified in a volatile fraction obtained by adsorption chromatography on silica gel of the total organic extract of wine. The results of gas-chromatography/ olfactometry analysis revealed that ethyl anthranilate was the most intense flavor compound of the isolated fraction among the four odorants identified. The second most intense flavor compound was ethyl cinnamate, followed by ethyl 2,3-dihydrocinnamate, and finally by methyl anthranilate. Ethyl anthranilate and ethyl 2,3-dihydrocinnamate were identified for the first time in any wine, and methyl anthranilate, was identified for the first time in a wine produced from a <i>Vitis vinifera</i> cultivar. The high olfactometric index found for ethyl cinnamate in the case of Pinot noir wine confirms the importance of this odorant in the wine flavor. The four odorant esters identified can influence the characteristic flavor quality exhibited by Pinot noir wines of Burgundy.

Formation and Degradation of Diacetyl in Wine During Alcoholic Fermentation withSaccharomyces cerevisiaeStrain EC1118 and Malolactic Fermentation withLeuconostoc oenosStrain MCW

Diacetyl accumulates in wine during alcoholic and malolactic fermentation (MLF). In an effort to understand the factors influencing the final diacetyl content of wine, we followed the changes in diacetyl concentration in Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot noir wines throughout alcoholic fermentation with the widely used wine yeast <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> strain EC1118, during MLF with <i>Leuconostoc oenos</i> strain MCW, and during storage. The effect of presence of yeast on the evolution of diacetyl concentration during MLF was investigated using the following treatments: (<i>1</i>) wine; (<i>2</i>) wine plus 60 mg/L sulfur dioxide; (<i>3</i>) sterile filtered wine; (<i>4</i>) wine plus <i>Leuc. oenos</i> strain MCW; and (<i>5</i>) sterile filtered wine plus <i>Leuc. oenos</i> strain MCW. Diacetyl concentrations increased linearly during alcoholic fermentation and then declined. No reduction in diacetyl concentration occurred after sterile filtration of wine or addition of 60 mg/L SO₂ to Pinot noir wine. An increase in diacetyl concentrations was observed two days after inoculation with malolactic cultures. Presence of <i>S. cerevisiae</i> EC1118 in wines inoculated with <i>Leuc. oenos</i> strain MCW resulted in lower diacetyl concentration throughout the course of MLF. Final concentration of diacetyl in MLF wines was brought to a concentration below sensory threshold about 20 days after completion of malolactic fermentation, both in the presence and absence of <i>S. cerevisiae</i>. Utilization of diacetyl by <i>Leuc. oenos</i> strain MCW, as well as other strains, was demonstrated.

Determination of Methoxypyrazines in Red Wines by Stable Isotope Dilution Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

Quantitative analysis of methoxypyrazines in a range of red wines is reported for the first time. By stable isotope dilution gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, 2-methoxy-3-(2-methylpropyl)pyrazine was determined in 12 Australian and New Zealand Cabernet Sauvignon wines (mean concentration, 19.4 ngL) and in 6 Bordeaux wines that are blends, to varying degrees, of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Cabernet Franc (mean concentration, 9.8 ngL). These findings suggest that the concentration of the methoxypyrazine in wines of these varieties is ca. 30 times lower than that indicated in a previous study. In these 18 wines, the concentration of the methoxypyrazine exceeded its sensory detection threshold in water, consistent with its contributing to wine flavor. The concentration in two French Pinot noir wines was below the sensory detection threshold. In all wines, the level of 2-methoxy-3-(l-methylpropyl)pyrazine was less than 2 ngL.

Reactions of Monomeric and Polymeric Flavan-3-ols with Monomeric Pigment in Model Wine Solutions

Pinot noir seeds contain a greater proportion of monomeric flavan-3-ols (catechins) to polymeric flavan-3-ols (tannin) than do Cabernet Sauvignon seeds. As Pinot noir wines are typically less tannic than Cabernet wines, it was hypothesized that the "excess" catechins were preferentially reacting with monomeric anthocyanins, preventing the formation of the anthocyanin-tannin adduct which serves to solubilize tannin. Competition studies in model wine solutions, however, showed that for monoglucosidic anthocyanins the catechins were not competing with tannin in the formation of an anthocyanin adduct, but rather that the catechins and tannin were preferentially reacting with each other in a dynamic process of interflavan bond formation and breakage. However, for diglucosidic anthocyanin the catechins did react preferentially to the tannin in the formation of the adduct. The putative stabilizing mechanism of monoglucosidic anthocyanin and tannin condensation never occurred during the course of the experiment, supporting the contention that the time-course of this reaction is slow.

Incidence of Volatile Sulfur Compounds in California Wines. A Preliminary Survey

Wines reported to have sulfide-related off-odors were analyzed for volatile sulfur compounds by headspace gas chromatography using a flame photometric detector. Fifty-seven of the 77 wines submitted by 19 wineries in California had one or more volatile sulfur compounds present at concentrations above threshold levels. Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) was the most widely distributed compound and present at the highest levels. Ethanethiol (EtSH) and diethyl disulfide (DEDS) were present in most Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot and in white wines made from Pinot noir, with a lower incidence in Sauvignon blanc and Chardonnay wines. Methanethiol (MeSH) was only found in nine of 19 Pinot noir wines. In the present study, distinct off-odors resulted from very high levels of EtSH (12 wines), DEDS (6), DMS (5) and MeSH (3). In contrast, 17 of the 77 wines contained volatile sulfur compounds at trace, sub-threshold levels, while three wines had none detectable, suggesting that sulfide-like odor problems may arise from non-sulfur containing compounds or possibly sulfur compounds not detectable by this headspace procedure.

Perception of alcohol in a Pinot Noir wine

Perception of alcohol in a Pinot Noir wine

Odor Analysis of Pinot Noir Wines from Grapes of Different Maturities by a Gas Chromatography‐Olfactometry Technique (Osme)

ABSTRACTPinot noir character varies significantly with vintage and with maturity within a given vintage. Our objective was to use a gas chromatography‐olfactometry technique (Osme) to compare odor profiles of Pinot noir wines from grapes harvested at different maturities, during 1987 and 1988. Odor profiles of Pinot noir wines from those years were very different from each other with only 4 odor‐active peaks common to both vintages. Wines made with grapes harvested at the end of the ripening period had more odor‐active peaks than wines from earlier harvested fruit. The 1988 wines had more odor‐active peaks than the 1987 wines.

Identification of Additional Odor-Active Compounds in Pinot noir Wines

Pinot noir wines from Oregon were extracted with Freon 113 for GC-MS-DS analysis. The presence of several new odor-active compounds was revealed in Pinot noir wine. Ethyl and methyl vanillate, acetovanillone, and methionol were identified. Isovaleric, hexanoic, octanoic, decanoic, and tridecanoic fatty acids were also identified. These odor-active compounds probably influence the flavor of the wine.

SENSORY PANEL TRAINING AND SCREENING FOR DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE AROMA OF PINOT NOIR WINE FERMENTED BY SEVERAL STRAINS OF MALOLACTIC BACTERIA

ABSTRACT.A sensory panel was selected and trained to describe the aroma of Pinot noir wines whose only difference was that they were fermented by different strains of malolactic bacteria. The panel developed a ballot consisting of 33 aroma descriptors and rated the wines using a balanced incomplete block statistical design. A final screening of the individual panelist's data was accomplished by use of correlation analysis. Significant differences were found in twenty of the aroma descriptors, showing that the strain of malolactic bacteria selected for use can effect aroma perception.

Descriptive Analysis of Pinot noir Wines from Carneros, Napa, and Sonoma

Twenty-eight Pinot noir wines from Carneros, Napa, and Sonoma were evaluated by descriptive analysis by seven trained judges. Wines differed significantly for all 14 sensory attributes except prune aroma. Principal component analysis of the mean ratings showed that Carneros wines differed from Napa and Sonoma wines and that they had unique sensory attributes. Carneros Pinot noir wines were characterized by intense fresh berry, berry jam, cherry, and spicy aromas.