Pig Units Research Articles

Dirt Score in Large White Yorkshire Piglets during Preweaning Period Reared on Cement Concrete Floor

An experiment was carried out on 24 Large White Yorkshire piglets of either sex at the pig unit of LFC of C.V.Sc., Rajendranagar, Hyderabad from birth to weaning. All experimental piglets were reared on normal conventional concrete flooring along with their mother till weaning (56 days). An evaluation of cleanliness (dirt scoring) was performed fortnightly during the experimental period. Pig cleanliness was assessed using a fivepoint scale on 4 anatomical areas: rear, back, and both flanks, and each area was given a score from 0 to 4. The observed fortnightly dirt score was 0.56 ± 0.03, 0.60 ± 0.02, 0.70 ± 0.02, and 0.97 ± 0.11 at first, second, third, and fourth fortnight respectively. There was a continuous increase in dirt score as the age advances. Statistical analysis revealed the mean dirt score at the fourth fortnight was significantly (P<0.01) different from the first, second, third, and overall mean dirt score.

Dirt Score in Large White Yorkshire Piglets during the Postweaning Period Reared on Different Floor Types

An experiment was carried out on 24 Large White Yorkshire piglets of either sex at the pig unit of LFC of C.V.Sc., Rajendranagar, Hyderabad from weaning (56days) to 126 days. Piglets were reared on four types of flooring systems i.e., T1 (control group) reared on the concrete floor, T2 rubber mat, T3 elevated slatted floor, and T4 reared on soil floor. The floor space provided was 1.5 m2 per piglet during the post-weaning period. Pig cleanliness was assessed using a five-point scale on 4 anatomical areas: rear, back, and both flanks, and each area was given a score from 0 to 4. The cleanliness score was increased as the age advanced from first to ninth fortnight in all floor types. The overall mean cleanliness scores of LWY piglets maintained on four different floors was 2.21 ± 0.06, 2.57 ± 0.04, 0.63 ± 0.02, and 2.44 ± 0.03 in concrete, rubber mat, elevated slatted, and soil floor respectively. The overall mean dirt score of piglets reared on rubber mat floor was significantly (P<.0.01) higher than the piglets on the elevated slatted floor, but it was comparable with concrete and soil floor. The higher cleanliness score of the piglets reared on rubber mat floor were dirtier than piglets on concrete and soil floor whereas, the piglets reared on elevated slatted (low score) were cleaner than rubber mat, soil, and concrete floors.

Factors affecting the level of commercialization of smallholder pig farmers in the west rand district municipality of gauteng, South Africa

This study aimed to analyse the factors influencing the smallholder pig farmers’ level of commercialization in the agricultural markets in the West Rand District of Gauteng Province, South Africa. A total population sampling was used, where data was collected from 84 smallholder pig farmers by a semi-structured questionnaire. Version 28.0 of the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), binary logistic regression, and multinomial logit models were used to analyse the collected data. The results showed that 78.6% of the smallholder pig farmers lacked commercialization. The results further indicated that the pig unit size, level of the farmers’ commercialization, number of piglets per sow, and farmers’ affiliation had a significant influence on the smallholder pig farmers' access to high-value markets. Variables such as credit availability, market accessibility, and the quantity of the piglets per sow significantly impacted the level of commercialization among the interviewed smallholder pig farmers. Smallholder farmers’ access to commercial and high-value pig markets is not easily accessible; therefore, the municipalities and local agricultural departments should make provision for an agricultural extension program that will prioritize and concentrate on the smallholder farmers’ access to the high-value market.

Assessment of the digestibility, growth performance, hematological and serum biochemical profile of Bandjock Local Pigs (BLP) and Duroc X Large White pigs (DLW)

The study aimed to assess the digestibility, growth performance, and selected biochemical and hematological parameters of Bandjock Local pigs (BLP) and Duroc X Large White pigs (DLW). We hypothesize that the use of local ingredients in diet formulation associated to improved rearing conditions, enhance the growth performance, digestibility, biochemical and hematological parameters of BLP. The trial involved dividing twenty-four eight-week-old weaner pigs into two groups. Each group was randomly assigned to separate pig units. Animal management and feeding were consistent between both groups. The trial lasted for 120 days during which the growth performance, the digestibility of ingested nutrients, and biochemical and hematological parameters were evaluated. The results indicate that DLW pigs registered a weight gain (46.56±5.19 kg) significantly higher than BLP pigs (34.02), with a statistically similar feed conversion ratio. Except for albumin which was significantly higher in DLW and urea in BLP, there were no significant differences (p > 0.05) in total protein, cholesterol, globulin, triglycerides, creatinine, AST, and ALT as well as hematological parameters between the breeds. However, the exotic DLW had a relatively high mean blood platelets and white blood cell concentration. Although the fecal nitrogen was higher in BLP and the urinary nitrogen was lower in the DLW, there were significant differences (p < 0.05) for urine, fecal, and total excreted nitrogen in both breeds. The lowest scores in nutrient digestibility were recorded with BLP compared to DWL, except for crude fibers. The results of this study demonstrated that using diet formulated with local ingredients and improved rearing conditions, Cameroonian local indigenous pigs have a better productivity compared to exotic breeds. It suggests that efforts should be made by authorities to promote and valorize the rearing of indigenous pigs in complement to exotic pig breeds in view of strengthening the Cameroonian pig industry.

PSIV-5 The Utilization of Alltech’s Seed, Feed, Weed Piglet Program as an Alternative to Zinc Oxide on the Growth, Feed Efficiency and Mortality of Newly Weaned Pigs

Abstract Achieving a healthy gut with a suitable microbial population in place will maximize the health and lifetime performance of piglets and, concurrently, profitability. Natural nutritional strategies that promote gut health and development in young pigs without zinc oxide (ZnO) are gaining considerable interest. Alltech’s Seed, Feed, Weed (SFW) program is designed to promote favorable microbial communities in the gut, optimize gut structures, and support the immune system; all of which will positively impact the growth and health of young piglets. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of the SFW piglet program as an alternative to ZnO supplementation on the growth, feed efficiency and mortality of newly weaned pigs. Newly weaned pigs were allocated to one of two dietary treatments in 3 experiments. All experiments were carried out on commercial pig units in Spain. Dietary treatments were a basal pre-starter and starter diet containing 3,000 ppm ZnO (CONTROL), and a SFW piglet pre-starter and starter pack containing 0 ppm ZnO (SFW). In Exp. 1, pigs (n = 431) were weaned at 28 days old and fed the experimental pre-starter diets for 9 days. In Exp. 2, pigs (n = 295) were weaned at 28 days old and fed the experimental pre-starter and starter diets for 35 days. In Exp. 3, pigs (n = 311) were weaned at 28 days old and fed the experimental pre-starter and starter diets for 21 days. Pig performance was recorded. In experiment 1, SFW-fed pigs had similar average daily gain (ADG; 142 g/d vs 148 g/d) and average daily feed intake (ADFI; 149 g/d vs. 167 g/d) to CONTROL fed pigs. Feed efficiency (FE) was 1.05 and 1.13 for SFW and CONTROL piglets, respectively, resulting in SFW fed piglets being heavier at the end of the treatment period (7.65 kg vs. 7.45 kg). In experiment 2, overall, ADG (308 g/d vs. 316 g/d) and ADFI (423 g/d vs. 444 g/d) were similar between SFW and CONTROL fed piglets, respectively. Th SFW piglets had greater FE than CONTROL pigs (1.37 vs. 1.41). In experiment 3, there was no effect of treatment on ADG (356 g/d vs. 355 g/d) and ADFI (410 g/d vs. 420 g/d) or piglet body weight at the end of the study (12.8 kg vs. 12.7 kg). Feed efficiency was improved (1.21 vs. 1.24) and piglet mortality was reduced (3.4 % vs. 6.9 %) in SFW fed piglets compared with CONTROL fed piglets. In conclusion, the SFW program may prove to be a suitable alternative to ZnO by positively influencing the gut health of piglets and ensuring that piglet performance and health is maintained in the absence of ZnO.

Evaluating the potential of biodegradation of swine manure through rotary drum composting utilizing different bulking agents

The rapid expansion of the pig industry and the concurrent increase in pig units have posed a significant waste management challenge, particularly in the form of piggery waste. In this study, the potential of three different bulking agents (sawdust, dry leaves, and rice straw) for the biodegradation of piggery waste was evaluated through rotary drum composting (RDC). Following the composting time of 20 days, evaluations of macro and micronutrient concentrations and the C/N ratio revealed stable, matured compost that could be used in farming. However, the saw dust amended RDC (RDC1) outperformed among the studied trails; the total nitrogen content of 1.54%, total phosphorus of 7.68 g kg-1, and total potassium of 23.45 g kg-1 demonstrated the bioproduct produced through RDC1 resulted in superior-quality end product achieved in only 20 days in comparison with other bulking agents studied. Further, the outcomes of the study can serve the swine livestock sector through effective bioconversion of the waste.

Phenotypic attributes and production performances of Agonda Goan pig

The aim of study was to evaluate morphometric traits, growth and reproduction performance of indigenous Agonda Goan pigs reared under coastal climate which supports livelihood development of resource poor farmers. Population size in breeding tract varied depending on farmers’ preference for breeding and consumers’ demand for pork. Data (n=74) on different parameters were recorded both from farmer’s flock and institute pig unit. Body measurements such as body length, height at withers, chest girth and neck girth of both were measured using measuring tape. The body weights at different ages i.e., birth, weaning and monthly interval up to one year of age were recorded using digital weighing balance. The average body length, chest girth, height at withers and neck girth were 102.68±3.22 cm, 99.86±3.64 cm, 58.32±1.19 cm and 73.09±4.18 cm, respectively. The mean bristle yield (g/cutting), bristle length(cm) and bristle diameter (micron) were 38.08±5.85, 4.45±0.04 and 268.21±9.84 in males, and 88.16±16.95, 5.69±0.07 and 270.93±11.07 in female pigs, respectively. The mean weight at birth was 0.59±0.01 kg and at weaning was 3.76±0.12 kg. The yearling weights of adult male and female were 46.58±4.50 and 47.27±6.46 kg, respectively. The average litter size at birth and at weaning was 7.21±0.41 and 5.93±0.28, respectively. Pre-weaning and postweaning growth rates were 79.25±9.86 and 153.85±13.34 g/day, respectively. This unique germplasm has potential for sustainable production with improved pig breeding programs. However, the breed is under constant threat due to indiscriminate crossbreeding with unbalanced admixture and replacement with exotic breeds for which immediateconservation and improvement programs are essential to save the breed.

Phenotypic attributes and production performances of Agonda Goan pig

The aim of study was to evaluate morphometric traits, growth and reproduction performance of indigenous Agonda Goan pigs reared under coastal climate which supports livelihood development of resource poor farmers. Population size in breeding tract varied depending on farmers’ preference for breeding and consumers’ demand for pork. Data (n=74) on different parameters were recorded both from farmer’s flock and institute pig unit. Body measurements such as body length, height at withers, chest girth and neck girth of both were measured using measuring tape. The body weights at different ages i.e., birth, weaning and monthly interval up to one year of age were recorded using digital weighing balance. The average body length, chest girth, height at withers and neck girth were 102.68±3.22 cm, 99.86±3.64 cm, 58.32±1.19 cm and 73.09±4.18 cm, respectively. The mean bristle yield (g/cutting), bristle length(cm) and bristle diameter (micron) were 38.08±5.85, 4.45±0.04 and 268.21±9.84 in males, and 88.16±16.95, 5.69±0.07 and 270.93±11.07 in female pigs, respectively. The mean weight at birth was 0.59±0.01 kg and at weaning was 3.76±0.12 kg. The yearling weights of adult male and female were 46.58±4.50 and 47.27±6.46 kg, respectively. The average litter size at birth and at weaning was 7.21±0.41 and 5.93±0.28, respectively. Pre-weaning and postweaning growth rates were 79.25±9.86 and 153.85±13.34 g/day, respectively. This unique germplasm has potential for sustainable production with improved pig breeding programs. However, the breed is under constant threat due to indiscriminate crossbreeding with unbalanced admixture and replacement with exotic breeds for which immediateconservation and improvement programs are essential to save the breed.

Contacts posing risks of disease introduction in swine breeding herds in Quebec, Canada: Is the frequency of contacts associated with biosecurity measures?

The introduction of pathogens into swine breeding herds can occur through a variety of contacts involving people, animals, vehicle or various supplies. Appropriate biosecurity is critical to mitigate these risks. A retrospective study was conducted to describe contacts with swine breeding sites over a one-month period and to evaluate their association with biosecurity measures and site characteristics. As part of a larger project, sites which had a recent porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus introduction were selected. A questionnaire, logbooks and pig traceability system were used for collecting data relative to persons or supplies entering the breeding unit, live pig transportation, service vehicles, other animal species, neighboring pig sites and manure spreading around the site. The 84 sites investigated had a median sow inventory of 675. A median of 4 farm staff and 2 visitors entered the breeding unit at least once over the one-month period. A total of 73 sites (87%) received visitor(s), mostly from maintenance and technical services. All sites received at least 3 supply deliveries (median of 8) including semen (99% of sites), small material and/or drugs (98% of sites), bags (87% of sites), and/or equipment (61% of sites). Live pig movements were observed in all sites, with a median number of 5 truck entries on the site or exits from the site. For feed mill, rendering and propane trucks, at least one entry was noted in ≥ 61% of sites. For all service vehicle categories except feed mill and manure vacuum trucks, a single service provider was involved in each site. Dogs and cats were banned from all sites, but wild birds were observed in 8% of sites. Manure spreading within a 100 m radius of pig units was noted in 10% of the sites. With a few exceptions, biosecurity measures were not associated with the frequency of contacts. A 100-sow increase in sow inventory was associated with an increase of 0.34 in the cumulated number of staff entering the breeding unit, of 0.30 in the number of visitors and of 0.19 in the number of live pig movements. Live pig movements were also positively associated with vertically integrated farrow-to-wean (vs. independent farrow-to-wean) production and time interval of 4 weeks or more between farrowing (vs. less than 4). Considering the variety and frequency of contacts observed, biosecurity should be meticulously applied in all breeding herds to prevent endemic and exotic disease introduction.

Different kettles of fish: Varying patterns of antibiotic use on pig, chicken and fish farms in Lao PDR and implications for antimicrobial resistance strategies.

The rapid intensification of the livestock sector in Southeast Asia has been found to be associated with an expanding use of antibiotics (ABU) and the rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in both humans and livestock. This study aimed to explore the views and practices of commercial pig, poultry and fish farmers regarding antibiotics in Lao People's Democratic Republic, where data on antibiotic use and AMR remain scarce. A multistage cluster sampling method, based on the random selection of villages in two provinces of Vientiane, was used. A total of 364 farmers, corresponding to 454 farm units, were surveyed using a questionnaire and farm visits. This study found a widespread use of antibiotics (261 out of the 454 farm units used antibiotics). The predominance of antibiotics considered critically important antibiotics for human medicine was of great concern. Results from a logistic regression model showed that antibiotics were found less frequently in fish farm units compared to pig and poultry farm units, and more frequently in specialized farms than in livestock-fish farms. Multiple factor analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis revealed three profiles of farmers, each with distinct patterns on knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding ABU and AMR. Cluster 1 held a positive attitude regarding preventive measures and information about antibiotics. In cluster 2, there was a view that antibiotics should be used for prophylactic treatment such as disease prevention. Cluster 3 was characterized by farmers with weak knowledge who were unfamiliar with antibiotics and uncertain about details concerning antibiotic use. This cluster was associated with a significantly lower use of antibiotics than the two other clusters in the regression model. The results of this study may help the Laotian government to adapt strategies to control AMR by focusing on the use of critical antibiotics and prophylactic treatments and by tailoring measures to farmers' profiles.

Porcine Cysticercosis Sero-prevalence and Factors Associated with its Occurrence in Southern Highlands, Tanzania

Porcine cysticercosis is endemic in Tanzania, especially in the Southern Highlands, Central areas and Northern Highlands regions of the country. It is a condition that reduces pork quality and suitability for human consumption and hence affecting public health and the pig industry. The prevalence and possible associated factors for porcine cysticercosis occurrence were investigated to assist in the planning for sustainable control measures. This study was conducted in three wards of Iringa region, southern Tanzania. A blood sample was collected from 346 pigs in 88 households and analysed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), to detect Taenia solium antigens (Ag). A questionnaire administered to farmers and an observational checklist tool assisted the researcher in collecting household information on pig management, sanitation and hygiene practices. On average, 22.3±3.44 per cent of pigs was seropositive for porcine cysticercosis in the three wards, and 53.4 per cent of the surveyed households had at least one seropositive pig. Statistically, porcine cysticercosis was associated with the scavenging pig rearing method (OR=2.426; p≤0.05) and poor quality pig housing (OR=1.75; p≤0.05). This means that scavenging pigs and those living in poor-quality pens had two times higher chances of being infected. Having more than half studied pig units with positive case(s) indicates limited inputs in pig feeding and sheltering thus exposing them to infection vulnerability. The poor-quality pens allowed pigs to escape and/or scavenge on T. solium eggs contaminated environment. Training and sensitising on improved pig management using locally available resources is essential. Also emphasising regular latrine use, hygiene and sanitation practices can support control.

The Effect of Needle Reuse on Piglet Skin Puncture Force.

The study investigated whether the repeat use of needles used to inject piglets with iron, influences the force required to puncture into piglet cadaver skin. Pig units (n = 31) were surveyed on needle reuse and injection practices, and these findings informed subsequent laboratory-based experiments on needle puncture force into piglet cadaver tissues. A 21 G 5/8” needle was reported as the most used needle type (67.7%), with 80.6% reporting needle reuse; 38.7% changed the needle between litters or earlier if damaged, 16.1% every three litters and 22.5% when it felt blunt or damaged, after each injection session or when changing the bottle of iron solution. There was a significant difference in puncture force between the 1st and 36th use (p < 0.05), and between the 1st and 100th use (p = 0.0015), but not between the 1st and 12th or 36th use (p > 0.999 and p = 0.8313, respectively). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging showed appreciable damage to the needle tip after 12 uses. The repeat use of needles in piglet cadavers increased the force of needle puncture compared to first-time use. When extrapolated to live animals, the use of blunt needles has the potential to cause pain and distress.

Health Monitoring of Fattening Pigs \u2013 Use of Production Data, Farm Characteristics and On-Farm Examination

BackgroundThe use of processed secondary data for health monitoring of fattening pigs has been established in various areas, such as the use of antibiotics or in the context of meat inspection. Standardized scores were calculated based on several sources of production data and can be used to describe animal health in a large collective of pig units. In the present study, the extent to which these scores are related to different farm characteristics and management decisions were investigated. In addition, slaughter scores were compared with the results of a veterinary examination on the farms.ResultsThe comparison of the results of the uni- and multifactorial analyses revealed that almost all of the examined factors play a role in at least one of the scores when considered individually. However, when various significant influencing factors were taken into account at any one time, most of the variables lost their statistical significance due to confounding effects. In particular, production data such as production costs or daily feed intake remained in the final models of the scores on mortality, average daily gain and external lesions. Regarding the second part of the investigation, a basic technical correlation between the slaughter scores and the on-farm indicators could be established via principal component analysis. The modelling of the slaughter scores by the on-farm indicators showed that the score on external lesions could be represented by equivalent variables recorded on the farm (e.g., lesions caused by tail or ear biting).ConclusionsIt has been demonstrated that the examined health scores are influenced by various farm and management characteristics. However, when several factors are taken into account, confounding occurs in some cases, which must be considered by consultants. Additionally, it was shown that on-farm examination content is related to the scores based on equivalent findings from slaughter pigs.

Tail-biting behaviour pre-weaning: Association between other pig-directed and general behaviour in piglets

Tail biting in pigs is a damaging behaviour and remains an economic and welfare problem in modern pig production. Although tail biting has been extensively investigated, little is known about the behaviour in piglets. The aim of this study was to investigate pig-directed and general behaviour and physical characteristics of suckling piglets in regard to tail-biting behaviour.Behavioural data from 284 piglets were collected at a commercial Danish pig unit. Prior to weaning, weight parameters were assessed and the frequency of performed/received pig-directed behaviour (tail biting, tail-in-mouth, tail interest, sow-directed biting, ear biting, other biting, displacement and mounting) and performed general behaviour (play-fight, social contact, suckling, locomotion and resting) was recorded for 60 min/piglet. Piglets were classified after the frequency of performed tail biting into high-biters (HB, ≥3 bites, N = 8), low-biters (LB, 1–2 bites, N = 64) and non-biters (NB, 0 bites, N = 212), and further after their tail damage (TD) into victims (V, TD > 0, N = 134) and non-victims (NV, TD = 0, N = 150).HB were lighter at weaning and had a lower ADG than NB and LB. Both, LB (mean ± s.e.: 0.6 ± 0.2 bouts/h) and HB (0.9 ± 0.3) performed more ear biting than NB (0.2 ± 0.0 bouts/h, P < 0.001), and significant differences between types were found for resting behaviour (percentage of scans ‘resting’: NB: 19.6 ± 1.5, LB: 12.9 ± 1.9, HB: 14.6 ± 4.2, P = 0.001). HB (0.6 ± 0.2) performed more sow-directed tail biting compared to other biter types (0.1 ± 0.0 bouts/h, P < 0.01), performed significantly more ‘other biting’ than NB (HB: 0.5 ± 0.2, NB: 0.1 ± 0.0 bouts/h, P < 0.05), and spent a higher percentage of scans in social contact than NB (HB: 14.7 ± 3.4, NB: 8.1 ± 0.7 bouts/h, P = 0.046). LB engaged more in tail interest (1.7 ± 0.2) compared to other types (0.6 ± 0.2 bouts/h, P < 0.001), displaced other piglets more than NB (LB: 1.1 ± 0.2, NB: 0.6 ± 0.1 bouts/h, P < 0.001) and mounted more than NB (LB: 0.4 ± 0.4, NB: 0.2 ± 0.1 bouts/h, P < 0.001). Moreover, LB (6.6 ± 0.9) spent a higher percentage of scans on play/fight behaviour compared to NB (4.6 ± 0.5, P = 0.042). Both, LB (1.0 ± 0.2) and HB (1.6 ± 0.7) were displaced more often than NB (0.6 ± 0.1 bouts/h, P < 0.001). V mounted more than NV (bouts/h V: 0.4 ± 0.1, NV: 0.2 ± 0.2, P = 0.001), and V received tail interest more frequently than NV (bouts/h V: 1.0 ± 0.1, NV: 0.6 ± 0.1, P = 0.041).This study detected physical and behavioural differences between biter types. The results may suggest that damaging biting behaviours, enhanced activity and social contact are connected. However, no conclusion can be drawn on whether the differences in behaviour are temporal or if they are stable over time. The fact that behavioural differences in regard to tail-biting behaviour were apparent already in piglets may have practical implications for the early prevention and intervention of tail-biting behaviour.

Modeling the outbreak and control of African swine fever virus in large-scale pig farms

African swine fever virus (ASFV) leads to a highly contagious, lethal and economically devastating disease among pigs. Since no effective treatment for the disease, it is crucial to investigate its transmission mechanism and control strategies in large-scale pig farms. We first established a toy model to explore ASFV spread in one pig unit. Then a switching patch model was developed to capture its spread from one initial epidemic pig house consecutively to others, even the whole farm. Assessing innocent culling rates of three large-scale epidemic pig farms in Jiangsu Province showed that it is unnecessary to slaughter all pigs in the farms compulsively. Then we explored how the disinfection and fixation of employees impact ASFV spread in the farms. To control ASFV, we can block or slow down its spreading by improving the efficiency of disinfection and decreasing employee population to some extend. We can also shrink potential areas to be infected by properly improving the matching refinement degree among employees and houses. Some essential requirements for large-scale pig farms are presented to reduce their ASFV spreading risk, which can be helpful for animal health authorities in establishing regulation to standardize large-scale pig farms.

An outbreak of African swine fever in small-scale pigs, Gauteng, South Africa, July 2020

ObjectivesSince 2012, outbreaks of African swine fever (ASF) in domestic pigs have increased outside of South Africa’s ASF control zone. This study describes the epidemiological investigation and findings of an ASF outbreak in a small-scale pig unit in Gauteng Province and makes recommendations to prevent future outbreaks. MethodsPCR testing and molecular analysis were performed on pig tissue samples. Veterinary services conducted epidemiological investigations, forward and backward tracing, and surveillance. Farm management and biosecurity practices were assessed. Quarantine, culling, carcass disposal, and disinfection were implemented. ResultsASF virus genotype I was detected. A concurrent ASF outbreak in neighbouring Mpumalanga Province was identified as a possible source. Inadequate biosecurity measures probably facilitated viral transmission. Potential mechanisms for the introduction of the ASF virus include swill feeding practices, free roaming of pigs, scavenging, illegal slaughter, and trade of pig products within the community. ConclusionsMolecular typing of the ASF virus linked the outbreak to an ongoing ASF outbreak in Mpumalanga Province. Pig enterprises with poor biosecurity practices may face greater risk of ASF introduction. Small-scale pig keepers should be targeted for ASF awareness and education campaigns. Innovative and cost-effective biosecurity solutions are needed in this resource-poor setting.

Swine Ultrasonography Numerical Modeling for Pregnancy Diagnosis and Prediction of Litter Size

Early and reliable diagnosis of pregnancy in sows is considered one of the most crucial parameters for the proper management in pig farming. Reproductive activity of the sows is directly correlated with the overall productivity of the enterprise. The best and most precise methodology to diagnose pregnancy in farm animals, including pigs, is ultrasonography. For getting optimal outputs of real-time ultrasonography application in pigs, both gestation status and litter size of sows is of high importance. Hence, a detailed evaluation and careful reading of the retrieved ultrasonic image could serve to the prediction of the sow’s litter size, providing valuable information to the producer. In the present article we studied the ultrasonic typification of sows in an effort to develop a methodology for the precise pregnancy diagnosis and the prediction of the litter size. To achieve this goal, 1214 matings and 1010 pregnancies were recorded and evaluated over a period of 20 months, in a pig unit in Northern Greece. Two thorough scans were performed on each sow, classifying the ultrasonic image in a scale of 0 to 10, 0 being ‘non pregnant’ and 10 given to the most reassuring image of pregnancy. Evaluations took place in a wide range of time since mating, hence between days 16 (the earliest first scan) and 68 (the latest that a second scan was performed) and the mean values obtained were 8,36 and 8,83 for the first and second scan respectively. Furthermore, the litter size of each subsequent parturition was recorded (mean: 12.22) and correlated to the score of each of the two scans performed during pregnancy. The results showed that more reassuring images and higher scores for both examinations of pregnancy were achieved with increasing time interval from mating (P&lt;0.05). It is therefore suggested that a detailed real-time ultrasonic scanning, can provide a very useful tool, not only for pregnancy diagnosis, but also for the prediction of litter size and eventually the precise management of pregnant sows.

Environment-, health-, performance- and welfare-related parameters in pig barns with natural and mechanical ventilation

A multifactorial approach using environmental, performance, health and welfare parameters was used to investigate the numerous associations of ventilation throughout three consecutive fattening batches (08/2015 to 12/2016) in a farrow-to-finish commercial pig farm in Belgium. Two fattening pig units were used, unit A (1256 pigs) with mechanical ventilation and unit B (1264 pigs) with natural ventilation. Animal genetics, nutrition, stocking density and health management were the same for both units. Key environmental indicators were monitored in real-time (temperature, humidity, CO2 and NH3) and the daily prevalence of respiratory disease cases was recorded to monitor the temporal expression of disease over time within a farm environment. The welfare status of the animals was assessed twice per production round (batch) with a simplified version of the Welfare quality® protocol. Serological tests for the most prevalent respiratory infectious agents (Mycoplasma hyopneumonniae, swine influenza virus (subtypes H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2), Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae serotypes 1-2-9-11 and porcine circovirus type 2) were performed during the first, second and final third of each fattening period. Finally, key performance parameters were calculated (average daily growth, feed conversion ratio) and upon slaughter lungs from pigs from unit A (n: 782) and from unit B (n: 544) were assessed for the presence of lung lesions, pleurisy and fissures. To identify the associations of ventilation on the aforementioned parameters, statistical models were run that also included other factors (when applicable) namely production batch, season, age and sampling.Overall, the use of natural ventilation was associated with a less optimal environment with regards to thermal comfort (p < 0.001), CO2 (p < 0.001) and NH3 (p < 0.001). A higher daily prevalence of respiratory disease cases was seen in the naturally-ventilated unit (p < 0.001). Concerning the sero-prevalence of the infectious agents tested, the odds to have a positive H1N1 sample were 3.17 higher in the naturally-ventilated unit (p = 0.003). From the visual assessment of the lungs no statistically significant associations were seen between ventilation type and the presence of lesions, fissures or pleuritis. Yet, the lung lesion score was expected to be lower in the naturally-ventilated unit (p = 0.010). Regarding performance parameters, feed conversion ratio and average daily gain were overall better in the mechanically-ventilated unit (descriptive results). Finally, a better welfare score was seen in the mechanically-ventilated unit in all three production batches (descriptive results).In conclusion, the mechanically-ventilated farm was associated with better environmental conditions for the fattening pigs. Yet, further research is needed to reach definite causal claims.

Microbiological assessment of liquid feed for finisher pigs on commercial pig units.

To investigate the microbiological and nutritional quality of liquid finisher pig feed on commercial production units and the factors influencing this. Microbiological and physio-chemical analyses were performed on liquid feed sampled from the mixing tank and troughs of the finisher section of eight commercial pig units. Lactic acid bacteria, yeast and Escherichia coli counts, as well as lactic acid, ethanol and acetate concentrations were higher in residual feed sampled from the troughs compared with mixing tank samples (P<0·001). Feed pH, as well as lysine, methionine and threonine concentrations and gross energy were all lower in the residual trough samples (P<0·001). Liquid co-products reduced E. coli counts in the residual trough samples (P<0·05), pH in the mixing tank (P<0·01) and fresh trough samples (P<0·05) and mould counts at all three sampling locations (P<0·01) but sanitation practices had no impact. Even when considered unfermented, a considerable degree of spontaneous fermentation occurs in liquid feed, with resultant negative effects on nutritional quality. This is one of the first studies showing that uncontrolled fermentation of fresh liquid pig feed is commonplace on commercial units, highlighting the need for implementation of suitable control strategies.

Resistance to change: AMR gene dynamics on a commercial pig farm with high antimicrobial usage

Group antimicrobial administration is used to control disease in livestock, but we have little insight into how this impacts antimicrobial resistance (AMR) gene dynamics. Here, a longitudinal study was carried out during a single production cycle on a commercial pig unit with high historic and current antimicrobial usage. Quantitative PCR, 16S rRNA gene metabarcoding and shotgun metagenomic sequencing were used to track faecal AMR gene abundance and diversity and microbiome alpha diversity. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing identified 144 AMR genes in total, with higher AMR gene diversity present in young pigs compared to dry sows. Irrespective of in-feed antibiotic treatment or changes in microbiome diversity, mean AMR gene copy number was consistently high, with some AMR genes present at copy numbers comparable to the bacterial 16S rRNA gene. In conclusion, AMR gene prevalence and abundance were not influenced by antibiotic use, either during the production cycle or following whole-herd medication. The high levels of certain genes indicate they are widely disseminated throughout the microbial population, potentially aiding stability. Despite the high and relatively stable levels of resistance genes against the main antimicrobials used, these compounds continue to control production limiting diseases on this unit.