Housing Systems For Pigs Research Articles

Animal board invited review: The need to consider emissions, economics and pig welfare in the transition from farrowing crates to pens with loose lactating sows.

In the development and implementation of housing systems for pigs, there has been a significant focus on pig welfare including loose housing of lactating sows either indoors or outdoors. However, it is equally important to consider the environmental and economic aspects of housing systems to ensure sustainability in livestock production. The aim of this work was to review the sustainability (societal and animal welfare, environmental and economic impact) of different approaches for housing farrowing and lactating sows in indoor environments. The review illustrates that like outdoor systems, indoor housing systems are challenged in meeting the three pillars of sustainability when changing the housing of lactating sows from conventional crates with permanent confinement to systems with temporary or zero-confinement. Increased space allowance increases sow welfare, but in addition, pen designs with increased space increase ammonia emission, investment and running costs. Furthermore, indoor loose lactation systems come with an increased risk for piglet mortality, which unless effectively managed, reduces animal welfare and the economic sustainability of the system. If farms retrofit existing buildings, the larger space per loose farrowing pen leads to a reduction in pen numbers and therefore herd size, reducing the farm profitability. If farmers choose to reduce herd size to meet requirements, welfare will be reduced while emissions will be increased as more sows are brought into production again in other countries, often in conventional systems with fully slatted flooring, to meet the demand for animal protein to feed the growing global population. The review indicates there are ways to house lactating sows loose indoors with increased opportunity to perform highly motivated species-specific behaviours compared to the conventional crates with continuous confinement. These systems can offer a lower risk for environmental impact and economic risk through reducing piglet mortality. Nevertheless, a trade-off for continual freedom of sow movement may be required as zero-confinement increases the risk of piglet mortality and increased emissions. It is important to raise awareness among citizens and policy makers that loose farrowing and lactating systems if applied today, come with a higher production cost and the risk of increased environmental impact. More research and development is needed in relation to the environmental and economic impact of these systems in order to give farmers the best information to invest in new and more sustainable production systems.

Systematically analysing the acceptability of pig farming systems with different animal welfare levels when considering intra-sustainability trade-offs: Are citizens willing to compromise?

In recent years, intensive pig husbandry has been subject to increasing public criticism, including a clear demand for more animal-friendly housing systems in many countries. However, such systems are associated with trade-offs at the expense of other sustainability domains, which challenges implementation and makes prioritization necessary. Overall, research is scarce that systematically analyses citizens' evaluation of different pig housing systems and associated trade-offs. Given the ongoing transformation process of future livestock systems that meet social demands, it is crucial to include public attitudes. We therefore assessed how citizens evaluate different pig housing systems and whether they are willing to compromise animal welfare in trade-off situations. We conducted an online survey with 1,038 German citizens using quota and split sampling in a picture-based survey design. Participants were asked to evaluate several housing systems with different animal welfare levels and associated trade-offs based on an either positive ('free-range' in split 1) or negative ('indoor housing with fully slatted floors' in split 2) reference system. Initial acceptability was highest for the 'free-range' system, followed by 'indoor housing with straw bedding and outdoor access', 'indoor housing with straw bedding', and 'indoor housing with fully slatted floors', with only the latter being clearly not acceptable for many. Overall acceptability was higher with a positive rather than a negative reference system. When confronted with several trade-off situations, participants became uncertain and temporarily adjusted their evaluations. Thereby participants were most likely to trade off housing conditions against animal or human health rather than against climate protection or a lower product price. Nevertheless, a final evaluation demonstrated that participants did not fundamentally change their initial attitudes. Our findings provide evidence that citizens' desire for good housing conditions is relatively stable, but they are willing to compromise at the expense of animal welfare up to a moderate level.

Environmental and economic consequences of pig-cooling strategies implemented in a European pig-fattening unit

Abstract The increased frequency of hot days due to climate change can potentially impair the environmental and economic performance of pig-fattening farms. Several pig-cooling strategies have been proposed to address these impacts, however their implementation is not always economically viable and the potential environmental-economic trade-offs not well understood. Here, we propose and implement a novel framework for environmental and economic evaluation of pig-cooling strategies in a whole farm context. We also demonstrate through a sensitivity analysis how such models can be integrated with projected climate data to investigate how climate change may affect the assessment of capital investments that are made over significant timescales. We considered two strategies implemented in a pig-fattening farm in south Sweden: pig-cooling with showers and with increased air velocity. Operation of the farm under non-cooling conditions was considered as the baseline system against which the analysis was conducted. We calculated whole-farm annual equivalent values (AEV) with the implementation of each strategy through a discounted cash flow analysis and annualised system environmental impact through a life cycle assessment. Both cooling strategies significantly reduced system environmental impact across all categories except water footprint. Acidification potential was reduced the most, exhibiting a −3.28% reduction with pig showers and −1.51% with increased air velocity. Farm profitability improved by +6.79% with showers and +3.37% with increased air velocity. Ambient temperature increase under non-cooling conditions significantly increased all impact categories with acidification being affected the most (+2.24%), and caused a −4.43% decrease in AEV. Both pig-cooling strategies mitigated these effects on system environmental performance. With increased air velocity we observed a +0.718% increase in acidification, while pig showers were the more resilient option exhibiting a +0.690% increase. The study represents a case-in-point for how to rationalise economically environmental management technologies in pig housing systems based on their cost-effectiveness in mitigating environmental impacts.

Comparison of two housing systems on behaviour and performance of fattening pigs

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to compare the effects of different housing systems on behaviour and growth performance of fattening pigs. Forty Duroc × Meishan pigs aged 100 d were assigned into two housing systems: indoor deep litter (DL) housing (4 pens with 5 pigs/pen) and indoor pen with outdoor playground (PG; 4 pens with 5 pigs/pen). Pig behaviour, body weight, and feed intake were recorded and analysed. Results showed that DL pigs spent more time exploring (DL: 231.0 vs. PG: 178.0 s/h, P < .01), while PG pigs were more aggressive (PG: 6.6 vs. DL: 0.4 s/h, P < .01) and engaged in higher levels of abnormal behaviour (PG: 20.0 vs. DL: 3.2 s/h, P < .01), specifically stereotyped behaviour and mouth-holding/biting tail. No difference was observed for the final body weight and feed conversion efficiency. The results of this study suggest that the DL system improves pig welfare at aspects of exploratory behaviour and abnormal behaviour compared with the PG housing system under the conditions studied, providing a basis for the selection and design of optimum housing systems for pigs.

Effect of pig housing system on blood biochemical indicators’ level

The aim of the study was to evaluate the influence of different pig housing systems on the level of chosen biochemical indicators in pig’s blood. The level of ACTH along with haptoglobin, lysozyme and IgG were determined in 20 sows and 150 piglets of crossed breeds: Polish Large White × Polish Landrace. The animals were kept in two different housing conditions: two facilities contained straw bedding (sows n = 10, piglets n = 75) in other two slatted floor without straw bedding access (sows n = 10, piglets n = 75). Biochemical indicators in sows and piglets were determined by taking blood samples after weaning (at the piglets’ age of ca. 30 days). Statistically significant influence of the housing system on the value of the determined indicators was showed. The level of both ACTH and immunity indicators was statistically significantly higher in animals housed without bedding. In sows the values of all indicators were higher than in piglets. The housing system on straw bedding turned out to be more favourable for pigs. Animals housed on slatted floor were more stressful.

Comparison between light scattering and gravimetric samplers for PM10 mass concentration in poultry and pig houses

The objective of this study was to compare co-located real-time light scattering devices and equivalent gravimetric samplers in poultry and pig houses for PM10 mass concentration, and to develop animal-specific calibration factors for light scattering samplers. These results will contribute to evaluate the comparability of different sampling instruments for PM10 concentrations. Paired DustTrak light scattering device (DustTrak aerosol monitor, TSI, U.S.) and PM10 gravimetric cyclone sampler were used for measuring PM10 mass concentrations during 24 h periods (from noon to noon) inside animal houses. Sampling was conducted in 32 animal houses in the Netherlands, including broilers, broiler breeders, layers in floor and in aviary system, turkeys, piglets, growing-finishing pigs in traditional and low emission housing with dry and liquid feed, and sows in individual and group housing. A total of 119 pairs of 24 h measurements (55 for poultry and 64 for pigs) were recorded and analyzed using linear regression analysis. Deviations between samplers were calculated and discussed. In poultry, cyclone sampler and DustTrak data fitted well to a linear regression, with a regression coefficient equal to 0.41, an intercept of 0.16 mg m−3 and a correlation coefficient of 0.91 (excluding turkeys). Results in turkeys showed a regression coefficient equal to 1.1 (P = 0.49), an intercept of 0.06 mg m−3 (P < 0.0001) and a correlation coefficient of 0.98. In pigs, we found a regression coefficient equal to 0.61, an intercept of 0.05 mg m−3 and a correlation coefficient of 0.84. Measured PM10 concentrations using DustTraks were clearly underestimated (approx. by a factor 2) in both poultry and pig housing systems compared with cyclone pre-separators. Absolute, relative, and random deviations increased with concentration. DustTrak light scattering devices should be self-calibrated to investigate PM10 mass concentrations accurately in animal houses. We recommend linear regression equations as animal-specific calibration factors for DustTraks instead of manufacturer calibration factors, especially in heavily dusty environments such as animal houses.

Dynamics of air temperature, velocity and ammonia emissions in enclosed and conventional pig housing systems.

This study aimed to compare the dynamics of air temperature and velocity under two different ventilation and housing systems during summer and winter in Korea. The NH3 concentration of both housing systems was also investigated in relation to the pig’s growth. The ventilation systems used were; negative pressure type for the enclosed pig house (EPH) and natural airflow for the conventional pig house (CPH). Against a highly fluctuating outdoor temperature, the EPH was able to maintain a stable temperature at 24.8 to 29.1°C during summer and 17.9 to 23.1°C during winter whilst the CPH had a wider temperature variance during summer at 24.7 to 32.3°C. However, the temperature fluctuation of the CPH during winter was almost the same with that of EPH at 14.5 to 18.2°C. The NH3 levels in the CPH ranged from 9.31 to 16.9 mg/L during summer and 5.1 to 19.7 mg/L during winter whilst that of the EPH pig house was 7.9 to 16.1 mg/L and 3.7 to 9.6 mg/L during summer and winter, respectively. These values were less than the critical ammonia level for pigs with the EPH maintaining a lower level than the CPH in both winter and summer. The air velocity at pig nose level in the EPH during summer was 0.23 m/s, enough to provide comfort because of the unique design of the inlet feature. However, no air movement was observed in almost all the lower portions of the CPH during winter because of the absence of an inlet feature. There was a significant improvement in weight gain and feed intake of pigs reared in the EPH compared to the CPH (p<0.05). These findings proved that despite the difference in the housing systems, a stable indoor temperature was necessary to minimize the impact of an avoidable and highly fluctuating outdoor temperature. The EPH consistently maintained an effective indoor airspeed irrespective of season; however the CPH had defective and stagnant air at pig nose level during winter. Characteristics of airflow direction and pattern were consistent relative to housing system during both summer and winter but not of airspeed. The ideal air velocity measurement favored the EPH and therefore can be appropriate for the Korean environment. Further emphasis on its cost effectiveness will be the subject of future investigations.

Reducing the sampling periods required in protocols for establishing ammonia emissions from pig fattening buildings using measurements and modelling

Ammonia (NH3) emission factors for animal housing systems in the Netherlands are based on measurements using standardised measurement protocols. Both the original Green Label (GL) protocol and the newly developed multi-site sampling protocol are based on year-round sampling periods. The objective of this study was to develop a measurement approach in which sampling periods are substantially shortened (i.e. to six months) whilst minimising the loss of overall accuracy compared to year-round sampling. Two methods were investigated: method A that combined measurements with a statistical model obtained from an extensive dataset of GL measurements for housing systems of fattening pigs, method B that used only measurement data to calculate year-round emission levels. Both approaches were investigated for application on mechanically ventilated housing systems for fattening pigs. The accuracy of both methods was evaluated by applying them to another dataset from five different pig housing systems. A reduction of sampling period from twelve to six months led to small increases in the overall random measurement error of the mean emission. The increase was least for method A because of the modelling component in this approach. Shortening of the sampling period may result in the risk of systematic deviations from the reference values. These systematic deviations are lower (although statistically significant) for method A (−4.1 to 4.7%) compared to B (−6.8 to 6.4%). If a small (

Integrated analysis of the effects of agricultural management on nitrogen fluxes at landscape scale

The integrated modelling system INITIATOR was applied to a landscape in the northern part of the Netherlands to assess current nitrogen fluxes to air and water and the impact of various agricultural measures on these fluxes, using spatially explicit input data on animal numbers, land use, agricultural management, meteorology and soil. Average model results on NH 3 deposition and N concentrations in surface water appear to be comparable to observations, but the deviation can be large at local scale, despite the use of high resolution data. Evaluated measures include: air scrubbers reducing NH 3 emissions from poultry and pig housing systems, low protein feeding, reduced fertilizer amounts and low-emission stables for cattle. Low protein feeding and restrictive fertilizer application had the largest effect on both N inputs and N losses, resulting in N deposition reductions on Natura 2000 sites of 10% and 12%, respectively.

Energieverbrauch und energetische Einsparpotenziale in der Ferkelerzeugung

For agricultural farms, a considerable share of variable costs is due to the energy consumption for agricultural production processes. In particular, piglet production and nursery have a high thermal and electric energy demand. For the planning and the redevelopment of pig housing systems, a good knowledge of the energy demand of different consumers is of great importance. With this knowledge, it is possible to derive measures for improving energy efficiency and reducing energy consumption.

The effect of two ammonia-emission-reducing pig housing systems on odour emission

Odour nuisance from agricultural activities is increasing in densely populated countries like the Netherlands. To develop adequate regulations, a large-scale, government-financed monitoring programme was started in the mid-1990s to establish odour emission levels for both conventional and low ammonia emission housing systems for cattle, pigs and poultry. The results indicate that high- and low-odour emission housing are difficult to distinguish because of the large variation within housing systems. Measurements on different farm locations within the same housing system show both a large variation between locations and within one location (in time). The latter, however, is significantly smaller, which suggests that farm management is an important determinant in odour emission that interferes with the effects of housing systems. The current research was aimed at determining the effect of two common ammonia-reducing pig-housing systems on odour emissions compared to conventional housing systems under similar management conditions. The respective reduction principles of these systems are reducing the emitting surface of the manure pit and cooling of manure in the manure pit (both pits beneath slatted floor). Five farms that combined conventional housing with one low-ammonia system (three reduced emitting surface and two manure cooling) were selected for a direct, pair-wise comparison of (olfactometric) odour emission measurements. The results show a highly significant effect (p < 0.01) for two of the three reduced emitting surface systems and for one of the two manure cooling system. The average odour reduction percentages of these systems are 35% (from 24.9 to 16.0 OUE/s per animal) and 23% (from 30.1 to 24.0 OUE/s per animal) respectively. Although odour emission reduction through the type of housing system is possible, management factors interact with the system and thereby determine whether the system reduces odour emission or not.

The effect of floor type on ammonia emission, welfare, health and behaviour of growing pigs

AbstractIn order to reduce ammonia emissions from pig housing systems, the Council of Europe proposes the use of part slatted flooring in preference to fully slatted flooring, but the effects of such changes on the health and welfare of pigs in the UK has not been defined. The aim of this experiment was to investigate the effects of different floor types on the emission of ammonia, behaviour and welfare, physical performance and respiratory and enteric health of growing/finishing pigs. This involved three replications of five treatments: 1) UK fully-slatted, 2) UK fully–slatted with rubber matting over 50% of the slats, 3) UK fully–slatted with “structural” modifications which involved “paving” over 50% of the floor and partitioning off the slurry channel beneath the solid floor, 4) UK part–slatted, and 5) novel Dutch partslatted with UK pig stocking density. Groups of 10 pigs (balanced for gender) weighing approximately 40kg were on–test for 10 weeks.

Alternative housing systems for pigs: Influences on growth, composition, and pork quality1

Effects of pig birth (first 3-wk period) and rearing environments on growth and muscle quality characteristics of loins were evaluated in three experiments over seasons in west Texas and central Missouri. Housing systems included indoor slatted-floor buildings, indoor deep-bedded buildings, outdoor housing on dirt, and outdoor housing on alfalfa pasture. Experiments were conducted during the growing/finishing phases and pigs were slaughtered at the same age. Loins were collected, vacuum-packaged, and stored for 14 d at 2 degrees C. Pigs born and finished in an outdoor environment during the summer months (Exp. 1) had a greater ADG (0.92 vs 0.82+/-0.06 kg/d, P < 0.05) and had heavier carcass weights (87.9 vs 78.4+/-2.4 kg, P < 0.05) than pigs born and finished in an indoor environment with a slatted-floor finishing building. Carcasses from the outdoor-reared group measured a larger (P < 0.05) loineye area and were fatter (P < 0.01) at the first rib, last rib, and last lumbar vertebra measurements than carcasses from the indoor-reared group. Loin chops from outdoor-reared pigs had darker color scores in the retail display case throughout the 4-d period, measured lower L* values on d 1, and had more discoloration and browning on d 4 than loin chops from the indoor-reared group. During the winter months (Exp. 2), no difference was detected in ADG, carcass measurements, sensory characteristics, or shear force values from indoor-born pigs placed in either an outdoor or indoor finishing environment. Pigs finished on deep bedding (Exp. 3) had heavier carcass weights and more backfat (P < 0.01) than pigs finished on slats, but no differences were detected in sensory panel or shear force results. Overall, carcass measurements, pH, drip loss, sensory panel, and shear force values were similar among the groups finished in different housing systems. Outdoor or deep-bedded systems may increase growth rates of pigs if suitable land area and resources are available, but pork quality of loins will be similar for pigs finished in either conventional or alternative systems.

Influence of different pig housing systems on odor emissions

The odor emissions from two different housing systems were determined during three fattening periods from October 1999 to November 2000 by analyzing weekly samples by means of dynamic olfactometry. The objects of the investigations were a standard housing system with fully slatted floor and forced ventilation (FF) compared with a kennel housing system with natural shaft ventilation (KN) in parallel operation. Only little data but with a wide range of odor emission values are available from the literature and these are difficult to compare and interpret, because of missing standards in presenting the results and experimental conditions. Therefore minimum requirements for measuring odor emissions from livestock buildings have been derived. In the scope of the measurements during the first two fattening periods (October 1999 to June 2000), no differences in odor emissions could be determined with mean values related to the livestock units (1 LU = 500 kg life weight) of 85 (FF) /87 (KN) in period A and 60 (FF) / 61 (KN) (OU/s)LU(-1) in period B. The overall range of the results of all measurements in periods A and B was 4 to 355 (OU/s)LU(-1). In period C (August-November 2000), the system FF showed higher odor emissions with 193 (28-550) compared to system KN with 105 (25-218) (OU/s)LU(-1). The air flow rates and odor concentrations at the three different naturally ventilated exhaust shafts of system KN differed considerably from each other. Odor measurement techniques with a higher temporal resolution than olfactometry are necessary to give evidence for the main factors influencing the odor formation and release.

Applied Research on New Pig Housing Systems

Developments In pig housing during the last decade have been influenced not only by economics but also by animal welfare and environmental regulations. Because the different requirements may cause conflicts for some aspects of pig housing, an integrated approach is necessary. Housing systems which partly or fully meet today's animal welfare and environmental regulations in the Netherlands are described.

Applied ethology

Behavioural knowledge is essential in dealing with animal problems that result from our exploitation of other animals, competition between ourselves and other species, and in relation to the spread of disease. The science of ethology contributes methods, theories and facts to the solution of such problems in which the ethologist has an important role to play, usuall in co-operation with spoeciealists in other disciplines. These applications of ethology are illustrated in this review by eamining specific examples in the fields of productivity and welfare, and pest control. In particular, ethological contributions to the design of improved housing systems for pigs, and in dealing with the expanding population of herring gulls in Bratian, are described.