Piercement-type Salt Domes Research Articles

SPE Award Namesakes Were Leaders in the Industry

SPE confers 18 honors and awards that recognize members' technical and professional excellence as well as their contributions to the society, the engineering profession, and their communities. Five awards have become synonymous with AIME and SPE and are named in honor of individuals who made singular contributions to the industry. Anthony F. Lucas Gold Medal The Anthony F. Lucas Gold Medal, established by AIME in 1936, is awarded to individuals for distinguished achievement in improving the technique and practice of finding and producing petroleum. There have been 62 recipients of the award since its inception. The medal was named for Captain Anthony F. Lucas, who is associated with the famous Spindletop gusher near Beaumont, Texas, and was the first chairman of AIME's Oil and Gas Committee, the forerunner to what eventually would become SPE. Often referred to as the "father of petroleum engineering," Lucas was born Antun Lucic on the coast of Dalmatia in 1855. He graduated from the Polytechnic Institute in Graz and entered the Austrian Naval Academy. He rose to the rank of second lieutenant but took a 6 months' leave of absence in 1879 to visit an uncle in Saginaw, Michigan. Lucas found employment in the lumber country and secured a second leave from his naval service. At the end of 1880, he decided to remain in the United States and changed his name to Anthony Francis Lucas. He married Caroline Weed Fitzgerald in 1887 and moved to Washington, DC. Their son, Anthony Fitzgerald Lucas, was born in 1892. A mechanical and mining engineer, Lucas went from Colorado to Louisiana in search of gold, salt, and sulfur deposits. From 1893 to 1896, he supervised salt-mining operations in Louisiana for a New Orleans company. In drills at Anse la Butte, Belle Isle, and Grand Cote (Weeks Island), he found traces of salt deposits and oil characteristic of the salt domes of the Gulf of Mexico coast. He explored the salt dome structures in the southern states, and by the time he arrived in Beaumont, Lucas had an extensive knowledge of salt domes and sulfur deposits. Pattillo Higgins was responsible for attracting Lucas to Beaumont. In 1899, Lucas answered an advertisement for a drilling contractor position placed by Higgins. Lucas was searching primarily for sulfur, but he also knew that there was a possibility that the Spindletop mound—a piercement-type salt dome similar to those along the Louisiana coastal region—contained oil. Lucas and Higgins got a lease/purchase agreement from the Gladys City Company for 663 acres south of Beaumont at Spindletop. In a separate agreement, Lucas retained a 90% interest for funding the search, and Higgins was given a 10% interest. Although Lucas located traces of oil, he found drilling extremely difficult, and his light equipment collapsed after reaching a depth of 575 ft. With funds dwindling, Lucas looked toward John Galey and James Guffey for financial support. Galey, Guffey, and Lucas worked out an agreement for financing.

Landscape evolution of the Five Islands of south Louisiana: scientific policy and salt dome utilization and management

Abstract The Five Islands of south central Louisiana are piercement-type salt domes uplifted from several kilometers depth as the surrounding strata experiences regional subsidence. In general, the domes are nearly circular in plan with maximum land surface elevations 23–52 m asl. Geomorphic evidence of salt-induced uplift includes surface lineations, aligned gullies, excessively steep land surface topography, and shear fractures in surficial sediments. Evidence of subsidence includes sinkhole ponds a few hectares in area, broad topographic saddles over tens of hectares in size, and kilometer-scale collapse structures. On each of the Five Islands, Peoria Loess and silty colluvium bury a paleosol developed in the Late Pleistocene Prairie Complex of the Lower Mississippi Valley. The loess represents a single genetic unit of eolian origin, is typically thickest on lower side slopes, and is thin or absent on ridge crests. The silty colluvium around the perimeter of the islands is a reworked loess derived from higher elevations. Shear fractures with high-angle average dips occur in both Peoria Loess and the Prairie Complex. Conjugate shear pairs probably develop from extensional stress associated with vertical uplift of the underlying salt. Prairie Complex deposition and initial soil development in a low-relief alluvial plain of the Mississippi River predates the latest emergence of the Five Islands. Loess and colluvial stratigraphy indicate that the domes were emergent during loess deposition. Gully incision, shearing of Quaternary sediments, and the distribution of colluvium indicate continued uplift after loess deposition. Sinkholes and collapse structures are influenced by salt dissolution and corrasion, whereas broad subsidence areas and topographic saddles form over areas of structural weakness within the salt. Five Islands landscape evolution is controlled by the interaction of driving and resisting forces that operate over various time scales. Diapiric uplift is a driving force of net upwards motion, and the external and internal salt dome hydrology are driving forces of solution and corrasion. The structure and lithology of the internal salt stocks and the surrounding sediments are heterogeneous and have variable strength. Collectively, this interaction produces both uplift and subsidence features across the salt dome landscape. Resource use at the Five Islands correlate with instability of both underground facilities and the surface landscape. Uplift of the Five Islands has continued since at least the Late Pleistocene, is probably still active at present, and periods of tectonic and geomorphic instability are possible in the future. Sediments overlying salt domes record discrete periods of surface uplift and periods of episodic and incremental subsidence that is common where salt domes pierce surficial sediment. The rate, magnitude, and pattern of landscape modification by salt domes have implications for the safe utilization of mineral extraction and geostorage facilities. Geomorphic evaluation of salt dome landscapes can help to develop policies that ensure safe salt dome utilization. Salt dome resource planning should include detailed characterization of internal and external stratigraphy and structure; modeling of geomorphic, soil and rock mechanic, and hydrologic processes; routine and emergency planning at operating facilities; and closure and post-closure plans.

Radium and radon in water supplies from the Texas Gulf Coastal aquifer

A sampling of the domestic water for two isotopes of the uranium (U)-238 series, radium (Ra)-226 and radon (Rn)-222, was conducted in parts of the Texas Gulf Coast (in and around Greater Houston and Harris County) to better understand the distribution patterns of these radioisotopes in residential and commercial water supplies. Samples were obtained from consumers' taps, as well as at well heads to evaluate variation due to location and depth of water sources. Analyses were conducted at the University of Texas, School of Public Health (UTSPH) in Houston. Computer mapping and statistical analyses were used to depict patterns of Ra and Rn distribution. The concentrations varied depending on water source. No measurable Ra or Rn were found in surface water supplies, whereas up to 23 pCi l −1 of Ra and 3300 pCi l −1 of Rn were observed in some of the wells in northwest and southwest Harris County. The Rn concentrations were observed to increase with depth, but for Ra peak concentrations were found between 180 and 320 m below the surface (at depths roughly corresponding to the top of the Evangeline aquifer). High concentrations of Ra and Rn were associated with wells developed on the flanks of piercement-type salt domes, along faults, and near streams. This study documents high Ra in Tertiary clastic coastal aquifers and suggests that it may be external sources, e.g. salt domes, uranium, or leaky faults, and not the bulk mineralogy of the aquifer which cause elevated concentrations. This is an important consideration when decisions are made about sites for drilling water wells.

The Bay Marchand Pressure Maintenance Project Unique Challenges of an Offshore, Sea-Water Injection System

The Bay Marchand Pressure Maintenance Project Unique Challenges of an Offshore, Project Unique Challenges of an Offshore, Sea-Water Injection System Extreme formation damage caused by the injection fluid; reservoir sands that broke down under injection; severe corrosion; and mechanical problems all spelled trouble in this large pressure maintenance project. Changes, based on test results, have turned it into a successful sea-water injection system. Introduction In the Bay Marchand Pressure Maintenance Project, one of the largest offshore injection systems in the U.S., sea water is injected at high pressures into deep Miocene sands. The need for pressure maintenance in this field off the coast of Louisiana was first recognized in the early 1960's. Six major reservoirs on the prolific east flank of this large salt-dome field exhibited only limited natural water influx after a period of rapid initial development. The early design of the injection system indicated large basic requirements. Injection volume exceeded 50,000 BWPD and injection pressures were anticipated to be as high as 3,650 psig. The injection wells were 11,000 to 12,000 ft deep. A series of unexpected problems developed soon after pressure maintenance began in 1963. First, reservoir sands, which had been sufficiently competent during the early production life of the field, broke down under injection. production life of the field, broke down under injection. In addition, corrosion and the pronounced pressure-rate effects on down-hole equipment were more pressure-rate effects on down-hole equipment were more severe than had been anticipated. Finally, there was severe formation damage, which later was found to be related directly to the use of sea water as an injection fluid. Description of Reservoirs The six major reservoirs under injection in Bay Marchand represent typical Miocene sand development along the flanks of a piercement-type salt dome (Fig. 1). The reservoirs overlie each other at depths between 8,300 ft subsea and 11,400 ft subsea. They are on the east flank of the structure and have an area ranging from 1,300 to 2,300 acres. Structural dip ranges from 24 degrees near the salt dome to 8 degrees at the original oil-water contact. Average net sand thicknesses range from 6 to 36 ft. Initial reservoir pressures varied from 4,600 to 5,291 psig. All but one reservoir were undersaturated initially. Reservoir temperatures vary from 182 to 197F. While initial GOR's averaged 450 scf/STB, oil gravities were between 21 and 30 degrees API. Since PVT properties varied with depth, small primary gas caps PVT properties varied with depth, small primary gas caps existed and the oil columns were undersaturated at their volumetric midpoints. Oil viscosities ranged from 1.1 to 1.9 cp, indicating favorable mobility ratios. Porosities were uniform and averaged 29 percent. However, permeabilities exhibited wide variations; three reservoirs had geometric-mean air permeabilities of less than 100 md, while the remaining sands had values up to 2,000 md. Initial water saturations exhibited a corresponding variation from 40 to 15 percent. percent. Drilling and Production History Initial development of the project sands began in Sept., 1958, with the completion of S. L. 1424 OCS-0387 S-9. Fig. 1 illustrates placement of the completions in a typical project reservoir. The U, W, X, BB and AA structures are 12-well units. JPT P. 389

Theory for Formation of Limestone Cap Rock of Salt Domes: ABSTRACT

Osmosis, a new concept in subsurface fluid flow, is applied to the field around a shallow piercement-type salt dome. In the process, ground water circulating under the influence of osmotic pressure deposits the limestone cap rock on the top of the dome. Limitations of the osmotic theory are discussed. End_of_Article - Last_Page 1602------------

Bay Sainte Elaine Oil Field, Southern Louisiana

The interpreted structure and geologic history of the Bay Sainte Elaine field, southern Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana, are the result of a detailed analysis and correlation of electric logs and the use of scout cards. The structure is that of a piercement-type salt dome exhibiting radial faulting on all but the northwest, southeast, and east flanks of the structure. Evidence of major faulting, and depositional characteristics during the interval between the BA and BB1 times (upper Miocene), seem to indicate that it was the period of maximum salt growth. Major hydrocarbon accumulation probably took place in late Miocene or early Pliocene time.

Developments in Upper Gulf Coast of Texas in 1955

This report covers the Upper Gulf Coast of Texas, located in the southeastern corner of the state, and the adjacent Continental Shelf. In 1955 there were 1,675 wells drilled in the area; of these 55.5 per cent were successful. Exploratory tests numbered 335; however, only 41 or 12.2 per cent were successful. Drilling continued to be concentrated in the Frio and Yegua trends. A Fleming (Miocene) trend appears to be developing offshore. More oil was discovered in the Yegua formation than in any other formation. Oil and condensate production during 1955 was 163,887,994 barrels or slightly higher than in 1954. Thirty-six new-field discoveries were made in the area during the year. The three most important discoveries are the Manor Lake field, Brazoria County, Barb-Mag field, Fort Bend County, and Southwest Hardin field, Liberty County. Piercement-type salt domes were the most active old fields during the year. Important new-pool discoveries were made on several of these old domes. Leases were taken offshore on 39,887 acres of State land. Although the number of acres leased was less than in the preceding 1953 sale, the average price per acre was about three times as high. Leases taken on Federal submerged land amounted to 149,760 acres, or nearly five times the amount leased in 1954. However, the average price paid per acre was only about 1/10 that of the previous year. Drilling on the Continental Shelf discovered three new fields during the year. During 1955 there was a 30 per cent increase in geophysical exploration over the previous year. Exploration and development activities should remain at a high level around the flanks of salt domes. Offshore drilling operations will probably increase during 1956.

Future of Louisiana Offshore Oil Province

detailed study has been made of all of the major structural features in the prolific Miocene producing trend of southern Louisiana in order to predict the future of its offshore counterpart. These features have been classified as piercement-type salt domes and deep-seated structures, and the oil and gas reserves and drilling success ratios for each type have been established. The study has been restricted to the major structural features, commonly referred to as grade A prospects, as the initial offshore exploration program will be restricted to such structures. It is predicted that one out of four of 95 major offshore structures will be proved commercially submarginal. However, one out of five of the major offshore structures should contain a giant field with reserves in excess of 100 million barrels of oil or its equivalent, or both. These giant fields will account for more than 50 per cent of the total reserve of the above-marginal fields. Based on the reserves of the onshore counterpart fields, the minimum reserves for the predicted 71 major commercial structures in the Louisiana offshore province are estimated to be 3 billion barrels of oil, 500 million barrels of condensate, and 21.5 trillion cubic feet of gas. The total reserves, expressed in terms of barrels of oil, are estimated to be 4.6 billion barrels, of which 2.6 billion will be found associated with the deep-seated features. These figures do not include the additional large reserves that will certainly be found during a later generation of exploration of lower relief and interdomal structures.

Factors Affecting Quantity of Oil Accumulation Around Some Texas Gulf Coast Piercement-Type Salt Domes

This paper represents a new kind of research on salt domes. Its primary purpose is (1) to determine the cause of the wide range in the quantity of oil accumulation on various piercement-type salt domes and, (2) to determine if some formula may be applied that would generally ascertain the productivity of a dome before an exploration program is conducted thereon. Twenty-four domes in the Texas Gulf Coast were studied: twelve are located in the Frio formation trend, and twelve are located in the Yegua formation trend. Calculations, based on the amount of structural uplift of the sediments around a dome and the area in square miles affected by the uplift of the dome, produced an area-uplift factor which, when considered with other factors and applied properly, reveals the ap roximate amount of oil that the dome is ultimately expected to produce. Two other important factors discussed are the rim syncline, and the oil-catchment area around a dome, and the effects of these two factors on the quantity of oil accumulation around piercement-type salt domes. Although the detailed study for this paper was limited to twenty-four domes, the conclusion advanced was found to have general application to other domes in the Gulf Coast.

Developments in Southeastern States in 1954

In the southeastern states there were 282 exploratory tests drilled, representing an 11 per cent decrease over the previous year. Geophysical and core-drill activity declined 6 per cent. This exploratory effort resulted in the discovery of 14 new fields, making a success rate of 5 per cent. Drilling in and near established fields resulted in three new pools and three extensions to fields. Of particular interest in Mississippi, however, was the completion of the first oil discovery in beds of the Paluxy formation of Lower Cretaceous age, which stimulated a lease play in central Mississippi. Production of the first high-gravity oil on a piercement-type salt dome and establishment of the Smackover (Jurassic) as a producing zone were other significant events of the year. Production was down in Alabama and Mississippi, but a slight increase (1.2%) was noted for Florida. Seismograph exploration continues as the major exploratory tool with 1,699 crew-weeks, but the core-drill maintained an important position with 443 crew-weeks. Statistically, 1954 represents a decline compared with the previous year, and as such does not indicate the impetus given the oil industry by the important events that occurred. There is a marked interest in Lower Cretaceous potentialities of Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida that permits a forecast of increased future activity.

New Exploration Possibilities on Piercement-Type Salt Domes Established by Thrust Fault at Boling Salt Dome, Wharton County, Texas

The South Boling field, Wharton County, Texas, on the south flank of the Boling piercement-type salt dome, was discovered in November, 1951, by the side-tracking of Michel T. Halbouty's Gary Estate No. 1-A, a dry hole. Four dry holes including the 1-A well were drilled in the area by the operator in the attempt to discover the field. After discovery, development proved the controlling structural feature to be a thrust fault associated with the Boling piercement-type salt dome. Some wells penetrated as much as 1,000 feet of overthrust Jackson (Eocene) shale before reaching the younger Frio (Oligocene) beds below the plane of the thrust fault. Ten productive Frio sands and one productive Marginulina sand have to date been established in the field. The significance of the th ust fault to Gulf Coast geological thinking and its expected effect on future exploration of piercement-type salt domes are discussed.

Developments in South Texas in 1950

A slight increase in the development rate was noted in comparison with the drilling activity in the South Texas area during the previous year. The decline in the rate of exploratory drilling was offset by the increase in development in proved areas. Wildcat drilling found 84 new fields and field development found 186 new pools in the previously established producing areas. The total oil production from the South Texas district was 129,792,724 barrels, 4,553,980 barrels more than was produced during 1949. An additional 19,182,512 barrels of hydrocarbon liquids were processed from the gas production. The percentage of oil wells connected with casinghead-gas processing systems has increased from 15 to 48.8 per cent over the past 4-year period. One of the most interesting dev lopments in the area geologically was the establishing of two interior piercement-type salt domes, one in northeastern Webb County, and the other in the northwestern part of McMullen County.

Marine Exploration in Gulf of Mexico: ABSTRACT

Marine exploration is one of the most expensive types of development ever undertaken by oil companies; the great amount of capital which must be hazarded before any returns are assured, necessarily restricts these operations to the larger companies. To meet this enormous cost, some of the large companies, which otherwise are unrelated, have combined for marine work. A complete exploration department of landmen, geologists, and geophysicists is required. Operations of these integrated departments must be coordinated continually without delay by an understanding management. The risks encountered in marine work are great. In addition to executive efficiency, proper management calls for daring in the use of capital and clear vision as to future values of resources now uncomme cial. Modern marine exploration for offshore oil and gas fields was apparently started experimentally in 1940, but had not reached its present large scale until 1946. The first offshore leases of the present type were obtained off the coast of Louisiana in 1945 and off Texas in 1947. Leasing requirements are different in Louisiana and Texas, and the more favorable conditions in Louisiana have resulted in the greater development there. The tidelands title controversy remains unsettled. Government agencies, such as the Corps of Engineers and the U. S. Coast Guard, demand that all of their regulations be respected. The fishing interests of Louisiana and Texas have made it difficult for the oil companies to plan and execute exploratory campaigns properly, thus increasing the cost. The high rent ls paid for leases force early development. All types of geophysical exploration have been utilized in the Gulf of Mexico campaign. Originally, the gravity meter was used by lowering it with an operator in a diving bell; later, the present remote-controlled gravity meter was evolved. Magnetic surveying, using both airborne and boat-towed instruments, is also employed. Early seismograph work, with charges and seismometers on the Gulf floor, was slow and costly. Experience has greatly refined seismic methods until, today, this End_Page 2315------------------------------ type of exploration is rapid, economical and obtains excellent results. It is estimated that all of the offshore areas of Louisiana, out to the 10-fathom depth, and about half of those of Texas, along a similar belt, have been mapped to date. The culmination of this marine exploration program began late in 1947 with the development of production on the first piercement-type salt dome at a comparatively shallow depth. To date, five additional discoveries have been made of either oil or gas fields, and tests on three other prospects are encouraging. The great cost and risk of marine exploration work must be recognized as small in comparison with the expense and hazard of the later exploitation phase. The tremendous costs of this development, to say nothing of the losses incurred in the dry wildcat wells which have been drilled and will continue to be drilled, will only be justified if there are no restrictions to prevent reasonable profits on the successful operations. The results of offshore work to date tend to confirm the original anticipation that this risking of enormous quantities of private capital will eventually make a great addition to the oil and gas reserves of the Western Hemisphere. End_of_Article - Last_Page 2316------------

Developments in Louisiana Gulf Coast in 1947

In 1947, 646 wells of all classifications were drilled in the Louisiana Gulf Coast. Of this number, 166, or 25.7 per cent, were classified as exploratory wells and 480, 9r 74.3 per cent, as field-development wells. Of the 166 exploratory wells, 59, or 35.5 per cent, were successful. Their classification follows. Success Percentage New-Field Wildcats, 73 17.8 New-Pool Wildcats, 39 64.8 Shallower-Pool Tests, 7 85.7 Deeper-Pool Tests, 7 100 Outposts, 40 20 Among the 480 development wells, 395, or 82.3 per cent, were successful and 85 were failures. There was a 10 per cent increase in drilling in 1947, with 646 wells drilled, as compared with 586 in 1946. These figures include only new holes drilled and do not include work-overs that were completed in shallower sands. The 13 new-field discoveries include 7 oil fields, 2 gas-distillate fields and 4 gas fields. Only 2 of these fields, Holmwood, a faulted structure and Ship Shoal-Block 32, a new offshore salt dome, are considered at this stage of development to be of significance. Ten of the new-field discoveries were credited to seismic surveys and 3 to seismic and subsurface. Several dry holes added knowledge of stratigraphy. Two of these failed in attempts to extend regionally westward, the producing Massive Tuscaloosa sand of the Big Island field. One shallow dry hole located a piercement-type salt dome in the Gulf of Mexico. Seismograph operations continued at a steady pace throughout the year with an approximate total of 3,400 crew weeks reported. Most of these operations was along the coastal and offshore Miocene trend. Leasing continued at a high level. Approximately 3,000,000 acres were taken, the majority of which was along the coastal and offshore Miocene trend. Drilling continued at a stepped-up pace with most of it confined to intermediate and deep Miocene horizons. The trend of exploration was definitely along the Miocene belt which has offered, and still offers, unlimited prospective sands and promise of greatest returns.