Picture-word Task Research Articles

Effect of Positive Mental Imagery Stimuli on Anhedonic Depressive Symptoms

This study aimed to investigate the effect of the intervention of positive mental imagery on anhedonia and the underlying reward mechanism in depression, and to explore the sustainability of the impact of the intervention following stress induction. Participants reporting anhedonic depressive symptoms (N=54) were randomly assigned to either a positive mental imagery condition or a verbalization condition, the former utilizing positive imagery stimuli only, and the latter utilizing language-based on meaning. Participants in both the conditions completed a computerized picture-word task for imagery generation and mental arithmetic stress task for stress induction. The results showed that both intervention conditions significantly reduced anhedonia and negative affect and that the mental imagery intervention was not superior to verbalization intervention. After stress induction, there was no significant difference between the two conditions in terms of the sustainability of the impact of the intervention on mood, reward subcomponents, and anhedonia. These findings provide preliminary evidence of the effectiveness of positive mental imagery in improving anhedonia. Furthermore, this study emphasizes the importance of repetitive imagery intervention due to the unsustainable impact of brief interventions after stress induction.

Effects of orthography in the picture-word task: Evidence from Japanese scripts

The picture-word task presents participants with a number of pictured objects together with a written distractor word superimposed upon each picture, and their task is to name the depicted object while ignoring the distractor word. Depending on the specific picture and word combination, various effects, including the identity facilitation effect (e.g., DOG + dog) and the semantic interference effect (e.g., GOAT + cow), are often observed. The response patterns of the picture-word task in terms of naming latencies reflect the mechanisms underlying lexical selection in speech production. Research using this method, however, has typically focused on alphabetic languages, or involved bilingual populations, making it difficult to specifically investigate orthographic effects in isolation. In this paper, we report five experiments investigating the role of orthography in the picture-word task by varying distractor script (using the multiscriptal language Japanese, and pseudohomophonic spellings in English) across three different populations (Japanese monolinguals, Japanese-English bilinguals, and English monolinguals), investigating both the identity facilitation effect and the semantic interference effect. The results generally show that the magnitude of facilitation is affected by orthography even within a single language. The findings and specific patterns of results are discussed in relation to current theories on speech production.

Interference during the retrieval of arithmetic and lexico-semantic knowledge modulates similar brain regions: Evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Single-digit multiplications are mainly solved by memory retrieval. However, these problems are also prone to errors due to systematic interference (i.e., co-activation of interconnected but incorrect solutions). Semantic control processes are crucial to overcome this type of interference and to retrieve the correct information. Previous research suggests the importance of several brain regions such as the left inferior frontal cortex and the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) for semantic control. But, this evidence is mainly based on tasks measuring interference during the processing of lexico-semantic information (e.g., pictures or words). Here, we investigated whether semantic control during arithmetic problem solving (i.e., multiplication fact retrieval) draws upon similar or different brain mechanisms as in other semantic domains (i.e., lexico-semantic).The brain activity of 46 students was measured with fMRI while participants performed an operand-related-lure (OR) and a picture-word (PW) task. In the OR task participants had to verify the correctness of a given solution to a single-digit multiplication. Similarly, in the PW task, participants had to judge whether a presented word matches the concept displayed in a picture or not.Analyses showed that resolving interference in these two tasks modulates the activation of a widespread fronto-parietal network (e.g., left/right IFG, left insula lobe, left IPS). Importantly, conjunction analysis revealed a neural overlap in the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) pars triangularis and left IPS. Additional Bayesian analyses showed that regions that are thought to store lexico-semantic information (e.g., left middle temporal gyrus) did not show evidence for an arithmetic interference effect. Overall, our findings not only indicate that semantic control plays an important role in arithmetic problem solving but also that it is supported by common brain regions across semantic domains. Additionally, by conducting Bayesian analysis we confirmed the hypothesis that the semantic control network contributes differently to semantic tasks of various domains.

Increased picture-word interference in chronic and recreational users of cocaine.

The correct production of speech depends on the effective use of inhibitory control. Cocaine abuse has been linked to impaired inhibition in the verbal and nonverbal domains. The aim of this study was to evaluate the possible impairment of the inhibitory control process engaged in the production of language among chronic cocaine users, both in rehabilitation and recreational contexts. Researchers obtained an index of semantic interference from a picture-word task performed by chronic cocaine users in rehabilitation (Experiment 1) and recreational cocaine polydrug users (Experiment 2). Cocaine users in both groups were matched for age and intelligence with cocaine-free health controls. Performance on the picture-word task was analyzed by repeated-measures analyses of variance. Both groups of cocaine users showed significantly more semantic interference than their respective cocaine-free control group. These results suggest a deficit in the ability to inhibit interfering information. The present findings suggest that cocaine use, even at recreational levels, is associated with specific impairments in the inhibitory mechanism that reduces the activation of overt competing responses in language production. This impairment results in the inefficient avoidance of irrelevant information, inducing errors and slower responses during the production of spoken language.

Relationship between cortical connectivity and aphasia therapy response

Introduction Individual response to aphasia therapy is highly variable and difficult to predict. While different therapies for word retrieval are often given based on assumptions regarding the underlying breakdown, behavioural symptoms do not consistently predict which type of naming therapy will be most effective. Measures of cortical connectivity derived from EEG before and after therapy may provide additional important information for predicting and understanding response to therapy. Methods Twenty-three adults were recruited including eight adults with chronic, post-stroke aphasia who successfully completed 12 therapy sessions over 4 weeks, alternating between semantic and phonological approaches to word retrieval based on semantic feature analysis and phonological components analysis. Fifteen age-matched healthy controls were included for comparison. High-density electroencephalography (128 channel EEG) was measured during a picture-word judgement task performed before and after treatment for the aphasia group. Analysis of EEG via a dynamic causal modelling (DCM) approach was used to assess semantic and phonological processing pre and post therapy. DCM was applied using five fronto-temporo-parietal regions of interest based on source imaging analysis in the control and aphasia groups. Results Post-treatment naming improvement was associated with cortical responses measured bilaterally in a DCM connectivity model. Specifically, naming improvement for items treated with semantic feature analysis was correlated with (a) increased pre-treatment coupling between the left inferior parietal lobule and left inferior frontal gyrus (r = 0.63, pFDR=0.016) (b) increased coupling from left to right inferior parietal lobule (r = .77, FDRp = .0005) and (c) decreased pre-treatment coupling between the right inferior parietal lobule and right anterior middle temporal gyrus (r = -0.76, pFDR = 0.03). Post-treatment, reduced coupling between right inferior frontal gyrus and right posterior superior temporal gyrus was also significantly correlated with naming improvement for semantic treatment items (r= −0.53, pFDR=0.010). Conclusions This preliminary study on a small cohort of individuals with chronic aphasia has demonstrated the potential of DCM connectivity models derived from EEG data to predict and understand aphasia therapy response. In addition to highlighting the importance of connectivity within left hemisphere networks and inter-hemispheric coupling for treatment, the observation of reduced right intrahemispheric coupling in those individuals with improved outcomes supports the view that right hemisphere mechanisms may not invariably support treatment-induced recovery. Elucidating effective ipsilateral and contralateral connectivity before and after aphasia treatment provides new insights into therapy-induced reorganisation of cortical networks associated with successful therapy outcomes.

When having two names facilitates lexical selection: Similar results in the picture-word task from translation distractors in bilinguals and synonym distractors in monolinguals

We report five experiments using the picture-word task to examine lexical selection by comparing the effects of translation distractors in bilinguals and synonym distractors in monolinguals. Three groups of bilinguals named objects in their L1 or L2, and English monolinguals named objects using common names (e.g., DOG=“dog”) or, in a novel manipulation, using synonymous alternative names (e.g., DOG=“hound”, GLASSES=“spectacles”). All studies produced strikingly similar results. When bilinguals named in L1, there was a small facilitation effect from translation distractors, but larger facilitation when they named in L2. When monolinguals produced common names, there was no reliable effect from synonym distractors, but facilitation when they produced alternative names. (There were also strong identity facilitation effects in all naming conditions.) We discuss the relevance of these results for the debate concerning the role of competition in lexical selection and propose that for speech production there are direct facilitatory connections between the lexical representations of translations in bilinguals (and between synonyms in monolinguals). The effects of synonyms in monolinguals appear to “simulate” the effects found for translations in bilinguals, which suggest that there are commonalities in monolingual and bilingual lexical selection.

An investigation of mental imagery in bipolar disorder: Exploring “the mind's eye”

ObjectivesMental imagery abnormalities occur across psychopathologies and are hypothesized to drive emotional difficulties in bipolar disorder (BD). A comprehensive assessment of mental imagery in BD is lacking. We aimed to test whether (i) mental imagery abnormalities (abnormalities in cognitive stages and subjective domains) occur in BD relative to non‐clinical controls; and (ii) to determine the specificity of any abnormalities in BD relative to depression and anxiety disorders.MethodsParticipants included 54 subjects in the BD group (depressed/euthymic; n=27 in each subgroup), subjects with unipolar depression (n=26), subjects with anxiety disorders (n=25), and non‐clinical controls (n=27) matched for age, gender, ethnicity, education, and premorbid IQ. Experimental tasks assessed cognitive (non‐emotional) measures of mental imagery (cognitive stages). Questionnaires, experimental tasks, and a phenomenological interview assessed subjective domains including spontaneous imagery use, interpretation bias, and emotional mental imagery.Results(i) Compared to non‐clinical controls, the BD combined group reported a greater impact of intrusive prospective imagery in daily life, more vivid and “real” negative images (prospective imagery task), and higher self‐involvement (picture‐word task). The BD combined group showed no clear abnormalities in cognitive stages of mental imagery. (ii) When depressed individuals with BD were compared to the depressed or anxious clinical control groups, no significant differences remained—across all groups, imagery differences were associated with affective lability and anxiety.ConclusionsCompared to non‐clinical controls, BD is characterized by abnormalities in aspects of emotional mental imagery within the context of otherwise normal cognitive aspects. When matched for depression and anxiety, these abnormalities are not specific to BD—rather, imagery may reflect a transdiagnostic marker of emotional psychopathology.

Semantic gradients in picture-word interference tasks: is the size of interference effects affected by the degree of semantic overlap?

We report two experiments attempting to identify the role of semantic relatedness in picture-word interference studies. Previously published data sets have rendered results which directly contradict each other, with one study suggesting that the stronger the relation between picture and distractor, the more semantic interference is obtained, and another study suggesting the opposite pattern. We replicated the two key experiments with only minor procedural modifications, and found semantic interference effects in both. Critically, these were largely independent of the strength of semantic overlap. Additionally, we attempted to predict individual interference effects per target picture, via various measures of semantic overlap, which also failed to account for the effects. From our results it appears that semantic interference effects in picture-word tasks are similarly present for weakly and strongly overlapping combinations. Implications are discussed in the light of the recent debate on the role of competition in lexical selection.

Transfer of Spanish grammatical gender to English: Evidence from immersed and non-immersed bilinguals

In this study we explored whether native Spanish speakers’ knowledge of grammatical gender in their native language (L1) affects speech production in a second language (L2) which lacks this feature (English). We selected Spanish–English bilinguals for testing who were immersed in either an L1 or an L2 context. Using a picture–word task, participants had to name pictures in their L2 while ignoring distractor words that could be either gender-congruent or gender-incongruent according to the Spanish translation. Results revealed that non-immersed participants were slower naming the pictures in the congruent condition, suggesting that bilingual people are influenced by knowledge about gender in their native language, even when producing utterances in a language in which this information does not apply. However, no such influence was observed for immersed bilinguals, suggesting that immersion environment attenuates access to the native language. We interpret our results as evidence of transfer effects between languages with different lexical systems, which seem to depend on language immersion.

NEITHER A RESPONSE NOR STIMULUS SET-SIZE EFFECT FOUND IN THE MANUAL STROOP TASK

Existing computational models of the Stroop task differ in predictions concerning the set-size effect, which is the relation between a number of stimuli/responses and the magnitude of the Stroop interference. However, relevant empirical data is not unequivocal, as some studies reported no set-size effects, while others found substantial set-size effects. We administered two experiments in order to resolve this discrepancy in the case of the manual Stroop task. Experi- ment 1 compared conditions including four, six, and eight stimulus/response mappings in the picture-word task. No reliable set-size effects were found, apart from a weak effect observed when a working memory load imposed by the task was deliberately decreased. Experiment 2 tested conditions consisting of four versus eight mappings in the color-word task, and it replicated results of Experiment 1. As both experiments had sufficient power to detect set-size effects if they existed, our data are inconsistent with models predicting such effects.

Effect of Hearing Loss on Semantic Access by Auditory and Audiovisual Speech in Children

This research studied whether the mode of input (auditory versus audiovisual) influenced semantic access by speech in children with sensorineural hearing impairment (HI). Participants, 31 children with HI and 62 children with normal hearing (NH), were tested with the authors' new multimodal picture word task. Children were instructed to name pictures displayed on a monitor and ignore auditory or audiovisual speech distractors. The semantic content of the distractors was varied to be related versus unrelated to the pictures (e.g., picture distractor of dog-bear versus dog-cheese, respectively). In children with NH, picture-naming times were slower in the presence of semantically related distractors. This slowing, called semantic interference, is attributed to the meaning-related picture-distractor entries competing for selection and control of the response (the lexical selection by competition hypothesis). Recently, a modification of the lexical selection by competition hypothesis, called the competition threshold (CT) hypothesis, proposed that (1) the competition between the picture-distractor entries is determined by a threshold, and (2) distractors with experimentally reduced fidelity cannot reach the CT. Thus, semantically related distractors with reduced fidelity do not produce the normal interference effect, but instead no effect or semantic facilitation (faster picture naming times for semantically related versus unrelated distractors). Facilitation occurs because the activation level of the semantically related distractor with reduced fidelity (1) is not sufficient to exceed the CT and produce interference but (2) is sufficient to activate its concept, which then strengthens the activation of the picture and facilitates naming. This research investigated whether the proposals of the CT hypothesis generalize to the auditory domain, to the natural degradation of speech due to HI, and to participants who are children. Our multimodal picture word task allowed us to (1) quantify picture naming results in the presence of auditory speech distractors and (2) probe whether the addition of visual speech enriched the fidelity of the auditory input sufficiently to influence results. In the HI group, the auditory distractors produced no effect or a facilitative effect, in agreement with proposals of the CT hypothesis. In contrast, the audiovisual distractors produced the normal semantic interference effect. Results in the HI versus NH groups differed significantly for the auditory mode, but not for the audiovisual mode. This research indicates that the lower fidelity auditory speech associated with HI affects the normalcy of semantic access by children. Further, adding visual speech enriches the lower fidelity auditory input sufficiently to produce the semantic interference effect typical of children with NH.

Effect of Perceptual Load on Semantic Access by Speech in Children

To examine whether semantic access by speech requires attention in children. Children (N = 200) named pictures and ignored distractors on a cross-modal (distractors: auditory-no face) or multimodal (distractors: auditory-static face and audiovisual-dynamic face) picture word task. The cross-modal task had a low load, and the multimodal task had a high load (i.e., respectively naming pictures displayed on a blank screen vs. below the talker's face on his T-shirt). Semantic content of distractors was manipulated to be related vs. unrelated to the picture (e.g., picture "dog" with distractors "bear" vs. "cheese"). If irrelevant semantic content manipulation influences naming times on both tasks despite variations in loads, Lavie's (2005) perceptual load model proposes that semantic access is independent of capacity-limited attentional resources; if, however, irrelevant content influences naming only on the cross-modal task (low load), the perceptual load model proposes that semantic access is dependent on attentional resources exhausted by the higher load task. Irrelevant semantic content affected performance for both tasks in 6- to 9-year-olds but only on the cross-modal task in 4- to 5-year-olds. The addition of visual speech did not influence results on the multimodal task. Younger and older children differ in dependence on attentional resources for semantic access by speech.

Is the Motor or the Garage More Important to the Car? The Difference Between Semantic Associations in Single Word and Sentence Production

The aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of part-whole (e.g., car-motor) and functional associations (e.g., car-garage) on single word (Experiment 1) and sentence production (Experiment 2). In Experiment 1, a classical picture-word task was used. In Experiment 2, the same stimuli and distractors were embedded into a sentence. The relation between target and distractor was either part-whole, functional or unrelated. At single word level, part-whole and functional relations facilitate naming. Additionally, the facilitation effect was stronger for part-whole in comparison to functional associations. During sentence production, facilitation shifted to interference. The difference between both relations disappeared. The findings of the different effects between functional and part-whole associations depend on the length of utterances and highlight the divergent impact of associations. The differences between part-whole and functional associations in single word production might reflect a differential organization of associative links at the conceptual level. In contrast, during sentence production the syntactic processing at the lexical level seem to be more important than types of semantic associations at the conceptual level.

First-Language Attrition in Bengali-English–Speaking Individuals

Multilingual immigrants who live in an environment that does not support their first language (L1) can experience changes in their L1. Such changes, over long periods of time, can lead to attrition in L1. Existing studies examining L1 attrition have been focused on European languages and immigrants between the European and American continents. A group of researchers at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York (CUNY) sought to understand L1 attrition in South Asian immigrants with L1s that are very different in structure from English. In this study, we examined the relationship between language-use and language-immersion patterns that affect first and second language (L2) performance in Bengali-English speaking multilinguals. Language performance was measured by two lexical tasks—a picture-word task and verbal fluency measures—in both Bengali and English. Results indicated that decreased L1 use and low self-reported ratings of L1 predicted L1 attrition in these Bengali-English speaking individuals. Results also indicated that the earlier individuals are immersed in an L2 environment, the more likely it is that their first language will be affected by attrition. Thus, frequent use of L1 is important in order to maintain it, especially for immigrants who wish to pass their L1 on to future generations.

Fishing for happiness: The effects of generating positive imagery on mood and behaviour

Experimental evidence using picture–word cues has shown that generating mental imagery has a causal impact on emotion, at least for images prompted by negative or benign stimuli. It remains unclear whether this finding extends to overtly positive stimuli and whether generating positive imagery can increase positive affect in people with dysphoria. Dysphoric participants were assigned to one of three conditions, and given instructions to generate mental images in response to picture–word cues which were either positive, negative or mixed (control) in valence. Results showed that the positive picture–word condition increased positive affect more than the control and negative conditions. Participants in the positive condition also demonstrated enhanced performance on a behavioural task compared to the two other conditions. Compared to participants in the negative condition, participants in the positive condition provided more positive responses on a homophone task administered after 24h to assess the durability of effects. These findings suggest that a positive picture–word task used to evoke mental imagery leads to improvements in positive mood, with transfer to later performance. Understanding the mechanisms underlying mood change in dysphoria may hold implications for both theory and treatment development.

The Lexical Stroop Sort (LSS) picture-word task: A computerized task for assessing the relationship between language and executive functioning in school-aged children

The relationship between language development and executive function (EF) in children is not well understood. The Lexical Stroop Sort (LSS) task is a computerized EF task created for the purpose of examining the relationship between school-aged children's oral language development and EF. To validate this new measure, a diverse sample of school-aged children completed standardized oral language assessments, the LSS task, and the widely used Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS; Zelazo, 2006) task. Both EF tasks require children to sort stimuli into categories based on predetermined rules. While the DCCS largely relies on visual stimuli, the LSS employs children's phonological loop to access their semantic knowledge base. Accuracy and reaction times were recorded for both tasks. Children's scores on the LSS task were correlated with their scores on the DCCS task, and a similar pattern of relationships emerged between children's vocabulary and the two EF tasks, thus providing convergent validity for the LSS. However, children's phonological awareness was associated with their scores on the LSS, but not with those on the DCCS. In addition, a mediation model was used to elucidate the predictive relationship between phonological awareness and children's performance on the LSS task, with children's vocabulary fully mediating this relationship. The use of this newly created and validated LSS task with different populations, such as preschoolers and bilinguals, is also discussed.

Curriculum-Based Measures of Beginning Writing: Technical Features of the Slope

This study examined technical features of slopes produced from curriculum-based measures (CBM) of beginning writing. Eighty-five first-graders completed weekly sentence copy, picture-word, and story prompts for 12 weeks. After 12 weeks, testing revealed alternate-form reliability and criterion validity of CBM scores generally similar to those found in previous research. Examinations of group- and individual-level slopes indicated 8 or 9 data points are needed to yield reliable and stable slopes. The picture-word task appeared most sensitive to growth in brief periods, yielding slopes that were significantly greater than 0 within 4 weeks. Research directions and recommendations for monitoring progress of beginning writers are discussed.

Developmental shifts in children’s sensitivity to visual speech: A new multimodal picture–word task

This research developed a multimodal picture–word task for assessing the influence of visual speech on phonological processing by 100 children between 4 and 14 years of age. We assessed how manipulation of seemingly to-be-ignored auditory (A) and audiovisual (AV) phonological distractors affected picture naming without participants consciously trying to respond to the manipulation. Results varied in complex ways as a function of age and type and modality of distractors. Results for congruent AV distractors yielded an inverted U-shaped function with a significant influence of visual speech in 4-year-olds and 10- to 14-year-olds but not in 5- to 9-year-olds. In concert with dynamic systems theory, we proposed that the temporary loss of sensitivity to visual speech was reflecting reorganization of relevant knowledge and processing subsystems, particularly phonology. We speculated that reorganization may be associated with (a) formal literacy instruction and (b) developmental changes in multimodal processing and auditory perceptual, linguistic, and cognitive skills.

Abnormal selective attention in psychopathic female offenders.

Research on psychopathy in women has generated equivocal laboratory findings. This study examined the performance of psychopathic women in 2 laboratory tasks designed to assess abnormal selective attention associated with response modulation deficits: a computerized picture-word (PW) task, and a picture-word Stroop (PW Stroop) task. Consistent with data from psychopathic men, women receiving high scores on the Psychopathy Checklist - Revised (Hare, 1991) displayed reduced Stroop interference on the PW and PW Stroop tasks. Results suggest that despite some differences in the expression of psychopathy across gender, psychopathic women are characterized by selective attention abnormalities predicted by the response modulation hypothesis and similar to those exhibited by psychopathic men.

Semantic competition between hierarchically related words during speech planning

There is overwhelming evidence that during speech planning semantically related words become lexically activated and compete for selection with the to-be-produced target word. The vast majority of this evidence stems from studies using the picture-word task, in which a distractor word (e.g., bird) drawn from the same semantic category as the target (e.g., fish) was shown to inhibit the picture-naming response more strongly than did an unrelated distractor word. By contrast, corresponding evidence from distractor words (e.g., carp) bearing a hierarchical relation to the target (e.g., fish) is sparse and inconclusive. In the present study, we investigated effects of subordinate-level distractors during basic-level naming and effects of basic-level distractors during subordinate-level naming. Hierarchically related distractors were found to inhibit the naming response in both situations. This pattern of results did not depend on whether the pictures were preferably named at the basic level or at the subordinate level. The results suggest that hierarchically related name alternatives compete for selection.