Picture Naming Speed Research Articles

Are Faster Participants Always Faster? Assessing Reliability of Participants' Mean Response Speed in Picture Naming.

Studies of language production often make use of picture naming tasks to investigate the cognitive processes involved in speaking, and many of these studies report a wide range of individual variability in how long speakers need to prepare the name of a picture. It has been assumed that this variability can be linked to inter-individual differences in cognitive skills or abilities (e.g., attention or working memory); therefore, several studies have tried to explain variability in language production tasks by correlating production measures with scores on cognitive tests. This approach, however, relies on the assumption that participants are reliable over time in their picture naming speed (i.e., that faster speakers are consistently fast). The current study explicitly tested this assumption by asking participants to complete a simple picture naming task twice with one to two weeks in between sessions. In one experiment, we show that picture naming speed has excellent within-task reliability and good test-retest reliability, at least when participants perform the same task in both sessions. In a second experiment with slight task variations across sessions (a speeded and non-speeded picture naming task), we replicated the high split-half reliability and found moderate consistency over tasks. These findings are as predicted under the assumption that the speed of initiating responses for speech production is an intrinsic property or capacity of an individual. We additionally discuss the consequences of these results for the statistical power of correlational designs.

The Effects of Word Frequency, Age of Acquisition, Animacy, and Grammatical Class on Picture Naming by Volunteers and People with Aphasia

ABSTRACT Background Numerous studies have investigated the effects of word frequency (WF), age of acquisition (AoA), and animacy on picture naming in volunteers and those with aphasia. But none have controlled for any possible interactions among these three variables during noun retrieval and whether WF and AoA influence verb retrieval in ways that are similar to that observed during noun retrieval. Aims The main purpose of this study was to examine the influences of WF, AoA, and animacy on noun retrieval in both volunteers and participants with aphasia and to compare these results to the effects of AoA and WF in both groups during verb retrieval. Methods and Procedures A factorial approach was used to study the effects of (a) WF, AoA, and animacy on picture naming for 249 nouns, and (b) the effects of WF and AoA on picture naming for 88 verbs. Fifteen volunteers with no history of neurologic or psychiatric impairment and 13 people with aphasia participated in this study. Naming latencies using key press procedures were used to assess the effects of the independent variables. Linear mixed effects with random intercepts were modeled to analyze the results. Outcomes and Results Nouns with early AoA and high WF were named significantly faster than all nouns with late AoA. There were no differences between naming speeds for animate vs. inanimate nouns. Animate nouns with early AoA and high frequency were named significantly faster than early, animate nouns with low frequency. Low word frequency facilitated naming by the participants with aphasia for early AoA verbs but slowed the volunteers’ naming for these verbs. Participants responded significantly faster to nouns versus verbs regardless of AoA and WF. Conclusions Controlling for animacy in noun picture naming produces novel findings regarding the effects of WF and AoA on word retrieval. The interaction among WF, AoA, and animacy is more consequential for picture naming speed than the specific effects of any one of these variables alone.

Promoting generalisation of naming therapy to connected speech through reducing naming speed

Event Abstract Back to Event Promoting generalisation of naming therapy to connected speech through reducing naming speed Christina Sotiropoulou1*, Paul Conroy1 and Matthew Lambon Ralph1 1 University of Manchester, Neuroscience and Aphasia Research Unit, United Kingdom Word-retrieval difficulties commonly occur in aphasia and are considered one of the most pervasive symptoms affecting everyday communication. While picture naming tasks have typically been used for assessing and treating word finding problems in clinical practice, there is a dearth of studies investigating the relationship between confrontation naming and connected speech tasks. This study investigated whether a newly-developed treatment targeting both speed and accuracy (‘repeated increasingly speeded presentation’ - RISP) in picture naming would be more effective for improving the use of the treated names in connected speech, than a standard therapy (‘standard presentation’ - SP) which targeted accuracy alone. Twenty participants with aphasia of varying degrees of severity and subtype took part in twelve therapy sessions over six weeks. In the baseline and post-treatment assessments (four and two sessions respectively), participants were asked to complete a composite picture description task and a picture naming task, the items of which were part of the composite pictures and constituted therapy targets. For the dependent variables of speed and accuracy in picture naming, we found that, compared to the standard therapy, RISP was significantly more effective in improving picture naming accuracy and in maintaining the reduced RTs in the long term. While this was expected for speed (i.e. quicker RTs because of the speed manipulation), it was not expected for accuracy (i.e. no speed-accuracy trade-off). As for the picture description task, the ‘carry over’ of the therapy items to connected speech was increased for all items relative to the baseline. RISP therapy, however, in comparison to the SP, led to significantly higher generalisation of targeted items to connected speech, with long term effects. This could be due to (a) the increased benefit of RISP therapy on picture naming accuracy and picture naming speed, (b) the greater cognitive demand of the RISP task, because RISP promoted greater sustained attention, vigilance and motivation. These findings suggest that a more demanding single-word therapy can improve chronic stroke participants’ retrieval of isolated words and can promote strong generalisation effects to the more linguistically and cognitively demanding task of producing connected speech. Keywords: speed of naming, word finding difficulties, Aphasia, generalisation, Connected speech, speed accuracy trade-off, naming therapy Conference: 54th Annual Academy of Aphasia Meeting, Llandudno, United Kingdom, 16 Oct - 18 Oct, 2016. Presentation Type: Platform Sessions Topic: Academy of Aphasia Citation: Sotiropoulou C, Conroy P and Lambon Ralph M (2016). Promoting generalisation of naming therapy to connected speech through reducing naming speed. Front. Psychol. Conference Abstract: 54th Annual Academy of Aphasia Meeting. doi: 10.3389/conf.fpsyg.2016.68.00057 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 29 Apr 2016; Published Online: 15 Aug 2016. * Correspondence: Miss. Christina Sotiropoulou, University of Manchester, Neuroscience and Aphasia Research Unit, Manchester, United Kingdom, christinsot@yahoo.gr Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Christina Sotiropoulou Paul Conroy Matthew Lambon Ralph Google Christina Sotiropoulou Paul Conroy Matthew Lambon Ralph Google Scholar Christina Sotiropoulou Paul Conroy Matthew Lambon Ralph PubMed Christina Sotiropoulou Paul Conroy Matthew Lambon Ralph Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

Connectivity between Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus and Supplementary Motor Area Predicts After-Effects of Right Frontal Cathodal tDCS on Picture Naming Speed

BackgroundCathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the right frontal cortex improves language abilities in post-stroke aphasic patients. Yet little is known about the effects of right frontal cathodal tDCS on normal language function. Objective/hypothesisTo explore the cathodal tDCS effects of the right-hemispheric homologue of Broca's area on picture naming in healthy individuals. We hypothesized that cathodal tDCS improves picture naming and that this effect is determined by the anatomical and functional connectivity of the targeted region. MethodsCathodal and sham tDCS were applied to the right inferior frontal gyrus in 24 healthy subjects before a picture-naming task. All participants were studied with magnetic resonance imaging at pre-interventional baseline. Probabilistic tractography and dynamic causal modeling of functional brain activity during a word repetition task were applied to characterize anatomical and functional connectivity. ResultsSubjects named pictures faster after cathodal relative to sham tDCS. The accelerating effect of tDCS was explained by a reduced frequency of very slow responses. tDCS-induced acceleration of picture naming correlated with larger volumes of the tract connecting the right Broca's area and the supplementary motor area (SMA) and greater functional coupling from the right SMA to the right Broca's area. ConclusionsThe results support the notion that the after-effects of tDCS on brain function are at least in part determined by the anatomical and functional connectivity of the targeted region.

What's in a Name Depends on the Type of Name: The Relationships Between Semantic and Phonological Access, Reading Fluency, and Reading Comprehension

The present study investigated the relationships between lexical access, reading fluency, and comprehension. Two components of speed of lexical access were studied: phonological and semantic. Previous studies have mainly investigated these components of lexical access separately. The present study examined both components in naming tasks—with isolated letters (phonological) and pictures (semantic). Seventy-five Grade 5 students were administered measures of letter and picture naming speed, word and nonword reading fluency, and reading comprehension, together with control measures of vocabulary. The results showed that letter naming was a unique predictor of word reading fluency, whereas picture naming was not. Conversely, picture naming speed contributed unique variance to reading comprehension, whereas letter naming did not. The results indicate that phonological and semantic lexical access speed are separable components that are important for different reading subskills.

Working memory capacity and dual-task interference in picture naming

Researchers have found no agreement on whether dual-task interference in language performance, such as dual-task interference from tone discrimination on picture naming, reflects passive queuing or active scheduling of processes for each task. According to a passive-queuing account, while a central response-selection bottleneck is occupied by the tone discrimination task, picture naming is held in a passive queue until the bottleneck is freed. In contrast, according to an active-scheduling account, participants determine the order in which the tasks proceed, monitor progress on the tasks, suspend picture naming and hold it in working memory, and determine when to resume picture naming. Here, we report a study that assessed the relative merits of the queuing and scheduling accounts by examining whether the magnitude of dual-task interference in picture naming is associated with individual differences in the capacity of monitoring and updating of working memory representations, as assessed by the operation-span task. We observed that the updating/monitoring ability correlated with the speed of picture naming and with the magnitude of the interference from tone discrimination on picture naming. These results lend support to the active-scheduling account of dual-task interference in picture naming.

How Do Speakers Resist Distraction?

Even in the presence of irrelevant stimuli, word production is a highly accurate and fluent process. But how do speakers prevent themselves from naming the wrong things? One possibility is that an attentional system inhibits task-irrelevant representations. Alternatively, a verbal self-monitoring system might check speech for accuracy and remove errors stemming from irrelevant information. Because self-monitoring is sensitive to social appropriateness, taboo errors should be intercepted more than neutral errors are. To prevent embarrassment, speakers might also speak more slowly when confronted with taboo distractors. Our results from two experiments are consistent with the self-monitoring account: Examining picture-naming speed (Experiment 1) and accuracy (Experiment 2), we found fewer naming errors but longer picture-naming latencies for pictures presented with taboo distractors than for pictures presented with neutral distractors. These results suggest that when intrusions of irrelevant words are highly undesirable, speakers do not simply inhibit these words: Rather, the language-production system adjusts itself to the context and filters out the undesirable words.

Relationships among linguistic processing speed, phonological working memory, and attention in children who stutter

Relatively recently, experimental studies of linguistic processing speed in children who stutter (CWS) have emerged, some of which suggest differences in performance among CWS compared to children who do not stutter (CWNS). What is not yet well understood is the extent to which underlying cognitive skills may impact performance on timed tasks of linguistic performance. The purpose of this study was to explore possible relationships between measures of linguistic processing speed and two aspects of cognition: phonological working memory and attention. Participants were 9 CWS and 14 CWNS between the ages of 3;6 and 5;2. Children participated in a computerized picture naming task (an index of linguistic processing speed) and a nonword repetition task (an index of phonological working memory). Parents completed a temperament behavior questionnaire, from which information about the children's attentional skills was collected. Findings revealed that the groups did not differ from each other on speed of picture naming or attention; however, the CWS performed significantly worse in nonword repetition. In addition, after partialling out the effects of age, (a) for CWS only, there was a significant negative relationship between picture naming speed and nonword repetition; (b) there were no significant relationships for either group between aspects of attention and picture naming speed; and (c) only the CWNS showed a significant relationship between nonword repetition and focused attentional skills. These results underscore the need to consider the underlying skills associated with lexically related aspects of language production when examining the task performances of CWS and CWNS. Educational objectives : The reader will be able to: (a) summarize findings from previous studies examining the speech and language performance of children who do (CWS) and do not stutter (CWNS); (b) describe findings of previous studies related to nonword repetition and attention in CWS; (c) compare the results of the present study with previous work in this area; and (d) discuss speculations concerning the relationship between linguistic processing speed, phonological working memory, and attention in CWS and CWNS.

Objective age of acquisition for 223 Italian words: Norms and effects on picture naming speed

The present study provides a set of objective age of acquisition (AoA) norms for 223 Italian words that may be useful for conducting cross-linguistic studies or experiments on Italian language processing. The data were collected by presenting children from the ages of 2 to 11 with a normed picture set (Lotto, Dell'Acqua, & Job, 2001). Following the study of Morrison, Chappell, and Ellis (1997), we report two measures of objective AoA. Both measures strongly correlated with each other, and they also showed a good correlation with the rated AoA provided by adult participants. Furthermore, we assessed the relationship between the AoA measures and other variables used in psycholinguistic experiments. Regression analyses showed that familiarity, typicality, and word frequency were significant predictors of AoA. AoA, but not word frequency, was found to determine naming latencies. Finally, we present a path model in which AoA is a mediator in predicting speed in picture naming. The norms and the picture set can also be downloaded from http://dpss.psy.unipd.it/files/strumenti.php and from http://brm.psychonomic-journals.org/content/supplemental.

Improved vocabulary production after naming therapy in aphasia: can gains in picture naming generalise to connected speech?

Naming accuracy for nouns and verbs in aphasia can vary across different elicitation contexts, for example, simple picture naming, composite picture description, narratives, and conversation. For some people with aphasia, naming may be more accurate to simple pictures as opposed to naming in spontaneous, connected speech; for others, the opposite pattern may be evident. These differences have, in some instances, been related to word class (for example, noun or verb) as well as aphasia subtype. Given that the aim of picture-naming therapies is to improve word-finding in general, these differences in naming accuracy across contexts may have important implications for the potential functional benefits of picture-naming therapies. This study aimed to explore single-word therapy for both nouns and verbs, and to answer the following questions. (1) To what extent does an increase in naming accuracy after picture-naming therapy (for both nouns and verbs) predict accurate naming of the same items in less constrained spontaneous connected speech tasks such as composite picture description and retelling of a narrative? (2) Does the word class targeted in therapy (verb or noun) dictate whether there is 'carry-over' of the therapy item to connected speech tasks? (3) Does the speed at which the picture is named after therapy predict whether it will also be used appropriately in connected speech tasks? Seven participants with aphasia of varying degrees of severity and subtype took part in ten therapy sessions over five weeks. A set of potentially useful items was collected from control participant accounts of the Cookie Theft Picture Description and the Cinderella Story from the Quantitative Production Analysis. Twenty-four of these words (twelve verbs and twelve nouns) were collated for each participant, on the basis that they had failed to name them in either simple picture naming or connected speech tasks (picture-supported narrative and unsupported retelling of a narrative). These were placed in a larger cohort of verb and noun sets for therapy. Post-therapy assessments examined naming accuracy and speed of target items in single-word picture-naming and naming accuracy in connected speech contexts. There was a step-wise decrement in naming accuracy over the three naming contexts following targeted therapy. Simple pictures elicited the most correct names, followed by picture-supported narratives and lastly unsupported narratives. Picture-naming accuracy significantly predicted naming in the connected speech contexts for the group as a whole. The speed of picture naming after therapy did not predict the extent to which items were named in composite picture description and narrative tasks. The findings suggest that gains in naming accuracy obtained through picture-naming therapy may generalize to naming of the same items in more linguistically and cognitively demanding connected speech tasks. Demonstrating this generalization is methodologically challenging and the method utilized in this study may serve as one starting point for gathering a larger database in order to answer the question posed by this paper more robustly.

Role of Visual Speech in Phonological Processing by Children With Hearing Loss

This research assessed the influence of visual speech on phonological processing by children with hearing loss (HL). Children with HL and children with normal hearing (NH) named pictures while attempting to ignore auditory or audiovisual speech distractors whose onsets relative to the pictures were either congruent, conflicting in place of articulation, or conflicting in voicing-for example, the picture "pizza" coupled with the distractors "peach," "teacher," or "beast," respectively. Speed of picture naming was measured. The conflicting conditions slowed naming, and phonological processing by children with HL displayed the age-related shift in sensitivity to visual speech seen in children with NH, although with developmental delay. Younger children with HL exhibited a disproportionately large influence of visual speech and a negligible influence of auditory speech, whereas older children with HL showed a robust influence of auditory speech with no benefit to performance from adding visual speech. The congruent conditions did not speed naming in children with HL, nor did the addition of visual speech influence performance. Unexpectedly, the /wedge/-vowel congruent distractors slowed naming in children with HL and decreased articulatory proficiency. Results for the conflicting conditions are consistent with the hypothesis that speech representations in children with HL (a) are initially disproportionally structured in terms of visual speech and (b) become better specified with age in terms of auditorily encoded information.

The locus of naming difficulties in children with dyslexia: Evidence of inefficient phonological encoding

Twenty-four children with dyslexia (aged 7;7 to 12;1) and twenty-four age-matched controls named pictures aloud while hearing nonsense syllables either phonologically related (i.e., part of) or unrelated to the target picture name. Compared with controls, dyslexics had slower reaction times overall and, for low frequency items, the degree of facilitation from phonologically related sound segments relative to unrelated segments was proportionally greater. Within the dyslexic group, phonological facilitation was greater and picture naming speed slower for poorer compared with better readers. Phonological facilitation and picture naming speed was unrelated to reading ability in the normal readers. The results suggest that phonological encoding during speech production is less efficient in some children with dyslexia and that hearing part of the target word strongly facilitates this process. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that dyslexia can arise from poorly specified output phonological representations.

An evaluation of a visual biofeedback intervention in dyslexic adults

A prototype of a biofeedback system designed to treat dyslexia by improving heart-rate variability was evaluated in a single blind study of dyslexic adults. Treatment consisted of four 15 minute exposures to a visual display synchronized with either the participant's own cardiac cycle (intervention condition), or of a synthesized cardiac cycle (placebo condition). Repeated measures were made of picture naming speed, single word reading speed and accuracy, copying speed, heart-rate variability and performance on a lateralized visual temporal order judgement task. Small but significant improvements were found in reading and naming speed in the treatment group relative to the placebo group. No significant improvements were found in unspeeded reading measures. Results from heart-rate measures indicated that treatment had effected a shift in the ratio between parameters reflecting the influence of the sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic nervous systems (ANS), respectively, in favour of the parasympathetic. In the temporal order judgement task, participants who received treatment showed a reduced level of overall improvement relative to that seen in those who received placebo, coupled with evidence of a shift in visual attention from left to right hemifield in their pattern of performance. The results are interpreted as indicating that the treatment induces a shift in autonomic balance in favour of the parasympathetic ANS, and that this shift is also reflected in increased efficiency of left cerebral hemisphere circuits implicated in the perceptual-motor processes required for naming and reading fluency. Conversely, it is also reflected in lower spatial awareness of peripheral visual stimuli, particularly those presented to left hemifield.

Phonological neighborhood density in the picture naming of young children who stutter: Preliminary study

The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of phonological neighborhood density on the speech reaction time (SRT) and errors of children who do and do not stutter during a picture-naming task. Participants were nine 3–5-year-old children who stutter (CWS) matched in age and gender to nine children who do not stutter (CWNS). Initial analyses indicated that both CWNS and CWS were significantly faster (i.e., exhibited shorter SRTs) and more accurate on phonologically sparse than phonologically dense words, findings consistent with those found with older children ( Newman & German, 2002). Further analyses indicated that talker group differences in receptive language scores weakened these findings. These preliminary findings were taken to suggest that phonological neighborhood density appears to influence the picture-naming speed and accuracy of preschool-aged children. Educational objectives: The reader will learn about and be able to: (1) recognize the relevance of examining phonological variables in relation to childhood stuttering; and (2) describe the method of measuring speech reaction times and errors during a picture-naming task as a means of assessing linguistic skills.

Age of acquisition and speech production in L2

We explored the role of age of acquisition in picture naming with a group of unbalanced, late bilinguals and a group of monolinguals. We hypothesised that we would find effects of L2 age of acquisition on L2 picture naming performance in late bilinguals if the age of acquisition effects we and others have found in L1 picture naming are not limited to language capabilities acquired early in the lifespan. In Experiment 1, late bilingual Spanish–English participants named a large set of pictures in their L2 (English). The most important predictor of naming ability was L2 age of acquisition. In Experiment 2, monolingual English participants named the same pictures. Naming speed was predicted by L1 age of acquisition. Hence speed of picture naming in a given language was predicted by age of acquisition values for that language, that is, L2 values predicted L2 performance (Experiment 1) and L1 values predicted L1 performance (Experiment 2). On the basis of these results we conclude that age of acquisition effects are not restricted to items learned before any putative critical period, but should be observed for items learned at any age. That is, age of acquisition effects are more likely to be due to the relative order in which items are acquired within a language.

Age of acquisition, ageing, and verb production: normative and experimental data.

Young and old adults were shown pictured or written verbs and asked to name them as quickly as possible. Simultaneous multiple regression was used to investigate which of a set of potential variables predicted naming speed. Age of acquisition was found to be an important predictor of naming speed in both young and old adults, and for both word and picture naming. Word frequency predicted picture-naming speed only in older adults and failed to make any significant contribution to word-naming speeds for either group of participants. The respective loci and roles of age of acquisition and frequency in lexical processing are discussed in the light of these findings.

Objective age-of-acquisition (AoA) norms for a set of 230 object names in French: Relationships with psycholinguistic variables, the English data from Morrison et al. (1997), and naming latencies

Picture naming speed is strongly influenced by the age of acquisition (AoA) of words. Most studies of AoA have relied on adults' AoA ratings. However, objective AoA has been found to be a stronger determinant of picture naming latencies. Whereas objective AoA norms for words have been collected for some language communities, no objective AoA measures for words were previously available in French. The study provides objective AoA norms for a set of 230 object names following the procedures used by Morrison, Chappell, and Ellis (1997) to collect objective AoA measures in English. The relationships between objective AoA measures, rated AoA, other variables used in psycholinguistic experiments (name agreement, image agreement, conceptual familiarity, etc.), the English data collected by Morrison et al., and naming latencies are analysed and discussed. In addition, reanalyses of data on picture naming latencies (Bonin, Chalard, Méot, & Fayol, 2002) with the use of objective AoA norms are provided. Stepwise multiple analyses show that objective AoA is a stronger determinant of (spoken and written) naming latencies than rated AoA, whereas objective word frequency is not a reliable independent determinant and does not interact reliably with AoA in any of the analyses.

Visual and Lexical Factors in Naming Speed by Children with Reading Disorders

Reaction times of 12 reading disordered and 12 normally reading children and 12 adults were investigated with a visual half-field tachistoscopic picture-naming task. Analysis indicated slower picture-naming times for children with reading disorders. Hemispheric processing models suggested neurolinguistic maturation for rapid picture-naming speed.

Naming the Snodgrass and Vanderwart Pictures: Effects of Age of Acquisition, Frequency, and Name Agreement

Independent measures of age of acquisition (AoA), name agreement, and rated object familiarity were obtained from groups of British subjects for all items in the Snodgrass and Vanderwart (1980) picture set with single names. Word frequency measures, both written and spoken, were taken from the Celex database (Centre for Lexical Information, 1993). The line drawings were presented to a separate group of participants in an object naming task, and vocal naming latencies were recorded. A subset of 195 items was selected for analysis after excluding items with, for example, low name agreement. The major determinants of picture naming speed were the frequency of the name, the interaction between AoA and frequency, and name agreement. (The main effect of the AoA of the name and the effect of the rated image agreement of the picture were also significant on one-tailed tests.) Spoken name frequency affects object naming times mainly for items with later-acquired names.

Comparison of deficits in cognitive and motor skills among children with dyslexia

There is a growing body of evidence that children with dyslexia have problems not just in reading but in a range of skills including several unrelated to reading. In an attempt to compare the severity and incidence of deficits across these varied domains, children with dyslexia (mean ages 8, 12, and 16 years), and control groups of normally achieving children matched for IQ and for age or reading age, were tested on a range of primitive (basic) skills. The children with dyslexia performed significantly worse than the same-age controls on most tasks, and significantly worse even than the reading-age controls on phoneme segmentation, picture naming speed, word tachistoscopic word recognition, speeded bead threading and some balance tasks. The overall performance of the children with dyslexia is interpreted as showing less complete automatization than normal.