Pictorial Displays Research Articles

Framing Effects in the Elicitation of Risk Aversion: An Experimental Study

The most common experimental methods to elicit risk aversion present the decision maker with a menu of lotteries and ask her to state her preferences. Lotteries are typically presented through a verbal description stating the outcomes and their likelihoods (“$100 with probability 10%”, “1 in 10 chance to win $100”), sometimes accompanied by a pictorial display (a pie chart or bar graph). Literature on risk communication suggests that alternative but equivalent numeric formats (e.g., percentages vs ratios) and pictorial displays (continuous vs discrete) may lead to a different perception of risk and aversion to it. The present experiment (N = 95) tests for such framing effects in a multiple price list task (MPL). Numeric risk information is framed either as percentages (“10%”) or as ratios (“1 out of 10”). To mirror the numeric framing, the pictorial display is framed either as a two-slice pie chart, representing likelihoods as proportions between areas, or a ten-slice pie chart, representing likelihoods as the number of units over a total. Results show that neither the numeric nor the pictorial framings significantly altered the average elicited risk aversion. This suggests that in MPLs and similar lottery-based tasks risk perception and aversion may be robust to such numeric and pictorial framings.

Impact of Adding a Pictorial Display to Enhance Recall of Cancer Patient Histories: A Randomized Trial

ContextCurrent health care delivery models have increased the need for safe and concise patient handover. Handover interventions in the literature have focused on the use of structured tools but have not evaluated their ability to facilitate retention of patient information. ObjectivesIn this study, mock pictorial displays were generated in an attempt to create a snapshot of each patient's medical and social circumstances. These pictorial displays contained the patient's photograph and other disease- and treatment-related images. The objective of this randomized trial was to assess the ability of these snapshots to enhance delayed information recall by care providers. MethodsParticipating physicians were given four advanced cancer patient histories to review, two at a time over two weeks. Pictorial image displays, referred to as the Electronic Whiteboard (EWB) were added, in a randomized manner to half of the textual histories. The impact of the EWB on information recall was tested in immediate and delayed time frames. ResultsOverall, patient information recall declined significantly over time, with or without the EWB. Still, this trial demonstrates significantly higher test scores after 24 hours with the addition of pictures to textual patient information, compared with textual information alone (P = 0.0002). A more modest improvement was seen with the addition of the EWB for questionnaires administered immediately after history review (P = 0.008). Most participants agreed that the EWB was a useful enhancement and that seeing a patient's photograph improved their ability to retain information. ConclusionMost studies examining the institution of handover protocols in the health care setting have failed to harness the power of pictures and other representative images. This study demonstrates the ability of pictorial displays to improve both immediate and delayed recall of patient histories without increasing review time. These types of displays may be amenable to generation by software programs and have the potential to enhance information transfer in various settings.

The Influence of Graphic Format on Breast Cancer Risk Communication

Graphic displays can enhance quantitative risk communication. However, empiric data regarding the effect of graphic format on risk perception is lacking. We evaluate the effect of graphic format elements on perceptions of risk magnitude and perceived truth of data. Preferences for format also were assessed. Participants (254 female primary care patients) viewed a series of hypothetical risk communications regarding the lifetime risk of breast cancer. Identical numeric risk information was presented using different graphic formats. Risk was perceived to be of lower magnitude when communicated with a bar graph as compared with a pictorial display (p < 0.0001), or with consecutively versus randomly highlighted symbols in a pictorial display (p = 0.0001). Data were perceived to be more true when presented with random versus consecutive highlights in a pictorial display (p < 0.01). A pictorial display was preferred to a bar graph format for the presentation of breast cancer risk estimates alone (p = 0.001). When considering breast cancer risk in comparison to heart disease, stroke, and osteoporosis, however, bar graphs were preferred pictorial displays (p < 0.001). In conclusion, elements of graphic format used to convey quantitative risk information effects key domains of risk perception. One must be cognizant of these effects when designing risk communication strategies.

Grouping, Simile, and Oxymoron in Pictures: A Design-Based Cognitive Approach

Researchers have identified 2 distinctive types of pictorial displays, namely, pictorial metaphor and pictorial simile, and offered theoretical explanations of them. Regarding the distinction between pictorial metaphor and pictorial simile, we argue that symmetric image alignment of pictorial components depicting things at the object level is the principal design factor that sets pictorial simile apart from pictorial metaphor and links pictorial simile to pictorial grouping. Based on the idea of symmetric image alignment, an attempt is made to identify and explain a further type of pictorial display, namely, pictorial oxymoron. We propose a hypothesis, called the "image grouping hypothesis," to provide an integrated account of pictorial grouping, pictorial simile, and pictorial oxymoron. The hypothesis can be summed up as follows: Symmetric image alignment of pictorial components depicting things of the same kind is apt for expressing pictorial grouping; symmetric image alignment of pictorial components depicting things of different kinds is apt for expressing pictorial simile; and symmetric image alignment of pictorial components depicting things that can be seen as incompatible with each other is apt for expressing pictorial oxymoron.

Effects of redundancy in the comparison of speech and pictorial displays in the cockpit environment

Synthesised speech and pictorial displays were compared in a spatially compatible simulated cockpit environment. Messages of high or low levels of redundancy were presented to subjects in both modality conditions. Subjects responded to warnings presented in a warning-only condition and in a dual-task condition, in which a simulated flight task was performed with visual and manual input/output modalities. Because the amount of information presented in most real-world applications and experimental paradigms is quantifiably large with respect to present guidelines for the use of synthesised speech warnings, the low-redundancy condition was hypothesised to allow for better performance. Results showed that subjects respond quicker to messages of low redundancy in both modalities. It is suggested that speech messages with low-redundancy levels were effective in minimising message length and ensuring that messages did not overload the short-term memory required to process and maintain speech in memory. Manipulation of phrase structure was used to optimise message redundancy and enhance the conceptual compatibility of the message without increasing message length or imposing a perceptual cost or memory overload. The results also suggest that system response times were quicker when synthesised speech warnings were used. This result is consistent with predictions from multiple resource theory which states that the resources required for the perception of verbal warnings are different from those for the flight task. It is also suggested that the perception of a pictorial display requires the same resources used for the perception of the primary flight task. An alternative explanation is that pictorial displays impose a visual scanning cost which is responsible for decreased performance. Based on the findings reported here, it is suggested that speech displays be incorporated in a spatially compatible cockpit environment because they allow equal or better performance when compared with pictorial displays. More importantly, the amount of time that the operator must direct his vision away from information vital to the flight task is decreased.

Comparison of Speech and Pictorial Displays in a Cockpit Environment

A current trend in cockpit design is to incorporate synthesized speech to present secondary information. Multiple-resource theories of information processing support this, but theories of stimulus/central-processing/response compatibility suggest that spatial information presented visually may have some advantages over speech if the response is manual. Two experiments compare response performance over single and dual tasks when information was presented pictorially and by speech. Pictorial subjects responded more quickly than did speech subjects. The addition of the visual tracking task in the dual-task condition had a differential effect on performance, depending on the modality of the primary task and the rate at which information was presented. The dual task impeded performance more in the fast and medium presentation rates for the speech condition but had little differential effect across rates for the pictorial condition. Analysis of the error data indicated that subjects in the pictorial condition were better able to maintain the context of the emergency than those in the speech condition. Results are discussed in terms of current theories of information processing.

A microcomputer system for simulation modelling

Microcomputers are now widely used for discrete-event simulation work in Operational Research. An inexpensive microcomputer system for simulation modelling is presented. Based on an Apple II, it allows the programmer to develop three-phase activity based interactive models in Ucsd Pascal. Use is made of disc emulation for the provision of simultaneously available pictorial displays and the extension of fast access on-line memory for the development of large simulations. Use of a microcomputer speeds development time and gives the user a transportable computer dedicated to the simulation. Pascal facilitates the development of readable portable simulations. The simulation of a conveyer belt system demonstrates the simplicity and flexibility of the pictorial display. A practical study in the Health Service (modelling the treatment of chronic renal failure) illustrates that the package may be used to simulate a real and complex system.

An Investigation of Pictorial and Symbolic Aircraft Displays for Landing

Each of four different approach to landing displays was flown by a different group of four male instrument pilots. A pictorial approach “gate” symbology with perspective runway was compared to an electronic ILS-type display. Best performance overall was achieved with the combination of both these displays. No reliable lateral performance difference was found among displays but the variability tended to be less for displays with the perspective runway, especially close to the threshold. The vertical performance, however, was best on those displays that contained the vertical deviation scale and pointer irrespective of the presence of the runway. It was concluded that the pictorial information is of benefit in stabilizing lateral control, but the approach gates as used in the study did not, by themselves provide adequate guidance cues for precise vertical control.

Pictorial Displays on the Computer

Pictorial Displays on the Computer

Symbolic and Pictorial Displays for Submarine Control

The Navy has given extensive support to the development of several different integrated display concepts for nuclear submarines. This paper describes a research program through which comparative, empirical analysis of these concepts was accomplished. The displays evaluated can be classed in two general categories—symbolic and pictorial. The pictorial contact-analog format was tested with symbolic and with pictorial or perspective quickened tracking techniques. The symbolic depth-azimuth format was tested with symbolic quickened tracking and with pictorial presentation of a predictor tracking device.

Use of Airborne Monopulse Radar as a Low Approach Aid

The potential of airborne radar to provide pictorial displays as an aid to low approach has stimulated invention of several aircraft approach systems. Early developments are reviewed briefly, and an experiment in producing and flight testing a two-dimensional, range and azimuth, pictorial radar display is described. The monopulse radar equipment and a monopulse display improvement (MDI) technique used in the flight test to enhance the B-scope display are also described in some detail. Representative radar scope photographs are used to illustrate the display available in the aircraft.

The characteristics and potential of VOR/DME area coverage capability

This paper describes the characteristics of the common system navigational aids, VOR and DME, as an area navigation system, and discusses methods for using them other than by flying along radials to or from the station. The use of pictorial displays and course line computers, either separtely or in combination, to achieve area navigation capability is distinctly possible. The choice of pictorial display or of the computer or of both will be made on considerations other than accuracy. Justification will have to be based on operational benefits such as least time and distance tracks, altitude availability or on air traffic control benefits. Cockpit space and chart provisioning are major problems in connection with pictorial displays, but can be overcome if cost benefits are sufficient. Flight evaluation in a live-traffic environment of the Bendix-modified Alternate Track VORTAC Computer in a united Air Lines DC-8F Cargoliner is described. Modification consisted of an additional function permitting operation parallel to radiais, in addition to phantom station mode of operation. Results were promising and indicate the track-keeping ability of a parallel course computer is consistent with existing airway criteria with little increase in pilot workload. Significant increases in traffic capacity of the existing airway system is possible with no required increase in number of VOR/DME facilities presently available.

Current RTCA Studies which Concern Air Traffic Control

In a narrow sense, a definition of an Air Traffic Control study probably would be confined to procedures and equipments used solely for take-off, en route navigation, approach, landing and taxiing. In a broader sense, however, Air Traffic Control can be considered to include all means of increasing accuracy and the scope of application of any electronic device employed in aeronautical operation. The Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA) is currently conducting nearly a dozen technical studies relating to one or the other of the above categories. The majority of RTCA's studies are performed by Special Committees. This presentation, therefore, comprises a summary statement of the current status of the activities of those Special Committees whose work relates either directly or indirectly to Air Traffic Control. Special Committee 54 (SC54) ``Operational Analysis of the Need for and Use of Course Line Computers and Pictorial Displays in Air Traffic Control'' Special Committee 56 (SC56) ``Implementation of the VHF Utilization Plan and Review of Transition Period Communication Requirements'' Special Committee 57 (SC57) ``High Altitude Grid Plan for VOR/DME Frequency Pairing'' Special Committee 62 (SC62) ``Re-evaluation of VOR Airways Lateral Separation Procedures'' Special Committee 63 (SC63) ``Helicopter Air Navigation, Communication and Traffic Control'' Special Committee 64 (SC64) ``Radar Safety Beacons'' Special Committee 69 (SC69) ``Remoting of Long Range Radar Displays'' Special Committee 70 (SC70) ``Altimetry.''