Pickering High Internal Phase Emulsions Research Articles

Olive oil-in-water high internal phase Pickering emulsions stabilized by hydroxyapatite nanoparticles

Biocompatible high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) have attracted much attention in food and cosmetics due to their unique properties, such as adjustable viscoelasticity, high nutrient load, and long shelf life. Herein, we report an olive oil-in-water high internal phase Pickering emulsion (HIPE) stabilized solely by bare hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles. Compared with other HIPEs, the HIPEs stabilized by HA nanoparticles could be obtained through a one-step emulsification method without chemical modification or other chemical additives. The increase of HA concentration (≥ 0.5 wt%) resulted in increases in both the storage modulus and loss modulus of the HIPEs, indicating the particle network plays an essential role in the HIPEs gel strength. After increasing the oil phase fraction from 80% to 90%, the viscosity of the HIPEs increased from 8316 to 13855 Pa⋅s (shear rate 0.004 s−1) and exhibited as a pseudoplastic fluid. The effect of oil type on the HIPEs was also investigated. The HA nanoparticles may interact with the olefin and carbonyl groups of olive oil, forming interfacial-active particles to stabilize the HIPEs. This method is universal as it occurs with other natural oils (soybean, sunflower, and fish oil), which may have various applications in food, cosmetics, and functional material fields.

Preparation and Application of High Internal Phase Pickering Emulsion Gels Stabilized by Starch Nanocrystal/Tannic Acid Complex Particles.

Herein, the starch nanocrystal/tannic acid (ST) complex particles, which were prepared based on the hydrogen bond between starch nanocrystal (SNC) and tannic acid (TA), were successfully used to stabilize the HIPPE gels. The optimal TA concentration of the ST complex particles resulted in better water dispersibility, surface wettability, and interfacial activity as compared to SNC. The hydrogen bond responsible for the formation of ST complex particles and subsequent stable emulsions was demonstrated by varying the pH and ionic strength of the aqueous phase. Notably, the HIPPE gels stabilized via the ST complex particles can maintain long-term stability for up to three months. The HIPPEs stabilized via the ST complex particles all displayed gel-like features and had smaller droplets and denser droplet networks than the SNC-stabilized HIPPEs. The rheological behavior of HIPPE gels stabilized via the ST complex particles can be readily changed by tuning the mass ratio of SNC and TA as well as pH. Finally, the prepared HIPPE gels used to effectively protect encapsulated β-carotene against high temperatures and ultraviolet radiation and its controllable release at room temperature were demonstrated. It is anticipated that the aforementioned findings will provide new perspectives on the preparation of Pickering emulsion for delivery systems.

High internal phase pickering emulsions stabilized by zein/whey protein nanofibril complexes: Preparation and lycopene loading

High internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) prepared from natural polymers have attracted much attention in the food manufactures. However, single zein-stabilized HIPPEs are poorly stable and prone to flocculation near the isoelectric point. To address this issue, in this study, zein and whey protein nanofibrils (WPN) complex nanoparticles (ZWNPs) were successfully prepared using a pH-driven method, and ZWNPs were further used as HIPPEs stabilizers. The results showed that zein and WPN were combined together through hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interaction to form ZWNPs, and the HIPPEs stabilized by ZWNPs had excellent stability, which could effectively protect the internally encapsulated lycopene and improve the bioaccessibility of lycopene. In conclusion, this study provides a new strategy for the preparation of stable hydrophobic protein-based HIPPEs, represented by zein.

Effects of co-assembly of gliadin and carboxymethyl cellulose on the high internal phase pickering emulsions: Rheology properties, 3D printing performance and oil-soluble nutrient delivery

High internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) stabilized with gliadin-based particles have received considerable attention because of the advantages of easy access, low cost and clean label. However, the relatively weak self-supporting and thixotropic recovery properties limit their application in food 3D printing. The present study investigated the effects of co-assembly of gliadin and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) on the gel network structure, viscoelasticity, thixotropic recovery, 3D printing properties and β-carotene delivery performance of HIPPEs stabilized with gliadin-based colloid particles. The results showed that the combination of gliadin and CMC significantly enhanced the density of gel network structure of HIPPEs and endowed the HIPPEs solid-like viscoelasticity, moderate shear thinning behavior and excellent thixotropic recovery rate as well as 3D printability. The HIPPEs realized an optimal performance at a gliadin/CMC mass ratio of 2:1, with a thixotropic recovery rate up to 93.23 ± 0.72 %, and the corresponding printed 3D model had a smooth surface, regular shape, and good printing accuracy. In addition, the potential application of HIPPEs in delivery of oil-soluble nutrients was investigated using β-carotene as a model. The result suggested that the stability and bioaccessibility of β-carotene was significantly improved from 25.71 ± 0.29 % to 59.70 ± 0.99 % and 12.30 ± 0.11 % to 37.04 ± 0.76 % respectively as the existence of CMC. This study provides references for the construction and design of food 3D printing materials.

Effect of degree of esterification on the stability of high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) fabricated with pectin‐whey protein isolate complexes

SummaryThis study examined the effects of different degree of esterification (DE) on the stability of high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) fabricated using pectin‐whey protein isolate complexes. The modified pectin with different DE was prepared using the alkali de‐esterification method with high methoxyl pectin (HMP). The impact of DE on the conformational changes of pectin and whey protein isolate (WPI) during the complexes formation was examined using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and fluorescence spectroscopy. Citrus pectin (CP)–WPI complexes and camellia oil were used to create an emulsion with a self‐supporting structure of 75% internal phase volume. The thermal, centrifugal, storage and freeze–thaw stabilities of CP–WPI stabilised HIPPEs with different DE were evaluated and the results revealed that the low methoxyl pectin (LMP) produced via alkali de‐esterification altered the charge density of pectin. Compared with the untreated pectin, the electrostatic interaction between CP–WPI complexes was enhanced and the stability of CP–WPI stabilised HIPPEs was improved. The study will help to better understand the interaction between CP and WPI, enhance the efficiency of the pectin–protein delivery system and improve the utilisation rate of citrus pectin, which has important guiding significance.

Tuning interfacial viscoelasticity of catechol-functionalized alginate by pH-responsive covalent network for stabilizing high internal phase pickering emulsions

Polysaccharide-based soft particles have wide applications in preparing high phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) because of their adjustable interfacial properties, which can advance the stability of HIPPEs by strengthening their interfacial viscoelasticity. Nevertheless, there is limited research on the interfacial viscoelasticity of soft particles regarding the stability of HIPPEs. We synthesized Alg-CA soft particles by the Ugi reaction, featuring catechol functionality and amphiphilic alginate. These particles can self-assemble under pH stimulation, resulting in a network structure that impacts the interfacial viscoelasticity of HIPPEs. We investigated the relationship between self-assembled microstructure and interfacial viscoelasticity using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and rheometry. The study indicates that the Alg-CA solution produced a compact network structure at a pH level of 3, leading to the formation of highly stable HIPPEs (with a viscosity of approximately 1000 Pa·s). Additionally, by utilizing emulsion templates, 3D network aerogels with pH-sensitive, consistent microstructures may be developed, which presents a promising approach for designing and producing aerogels with distinct microporous architectures.

Stabilization of all-natural water-in-oil high internal phase pickering emulsion by using diosgenin/soybean phosphatidylethanolamine complex: Characterization and application in 3D printing

This study aimed to prepare an all-natural water-in-oil high internal phase Pickering emulsion (W/O-HIPPE) using diosgenin/soybean phosphatidylethanolamine complex (DGSP) and investigate the 3D printing performance. Results suggested that the self-assembly of diosgenin crystal was modified by SP in DGSP (diosgenin-SP ratios at 3:1 and 1:1), revealing a variation from large-size outward radiating needle-like to small-size granular-like shape, which facilitated closely packing at the interface. Hydrophilicity of DGSP was also increased (contact angle varying from 133.3 o to 106.4 o), ensuring more adequate interfacial adsorption to reduce interfacial tension more largely (6.5 mN/m). Thus, the W/O-HIPPE made by DGSP with diosgenin-SP = 1:1, exhibited smaller droplets and better freeze/thawing stability. The W/O-HIPPE was also measured improved rheological properties for 3D printing: satisfied shear-thinning behavior, higher recovery and self-supporting (viscoelasticity and deformation resistance). Consequently, the W/O-HIPPE allowed for printing more delicate patterns. This work provided guidance to prepare W/O-HIPPE for 3D printing.

Utilization of peanut protein isolate amyloid-like fibers as stabilizers for high internal phase Pickering emulsions

This paper focuses on modifying peanut protein isolate (PPI) through fibrillation to enhance its emulsification properties and investigates the potential application of the fibers in stabilizing high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs). Th T result indicates that the optimal conditions for peanut protein isolate amyloid-like fibers (PAFs) preparation are pH=2, 90 °C, and 20 h. Electrophoresis and Transmission electron microscope demonstrate that PPI undergoes peptide hydrolysis and self-assembly during the reaction process, leading to the formation of an elongated linear structure with a diameter approximately 14 nm. Furthermore, infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and contact angle results further demonstrate an increase in β-sheet content, crystallinity, and surface hydrophilicity compared to PPI. Notably, the emulsification activity index (EAI) of PAFs (78.62 ± 1.68 m2/g) was found to be increased up to threefold compared to that of PPI (27.89 ± 1.98 m2/g). According to visual observation and microstructural analysis, the addition of 1% PAFs has been found to effectively stabilize HIPPEs (φdisp = 0.75) due to the presence of dense protective layers formed by PAFs. Additionally, the particle size results (D[3,2] = 17.02 ± 2.02 μm) also indicate that the oil droplets are tightly enveloped by the dense protective layers formed by PAFs. Moreover, rheological data indicates that HIPPEs stabilized using PAFs exhibit excellent solid-like viscoelastic behavior. Overall, these findings suggest that the utilization of PAFs has significant potential in enhancing the stability of HIPPEs.

Carboxymethylcellulose-induced depletion attraction to stabilize high internal phase Pickering emulsions for the elderly: 3D printing and β-carotene delivery

In this study, a carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) induced depletion attraction was developed to stabilize high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) as age-friendly 3D printing inks. The results demonstrated that depletion force induced the adsorption of yolk particles at the droplet interface and the formation of osmotic droplet clusters, thereby increasing the stability of HIPPEs. In addition, the rheological properties and nutrient delivery properties of HIPPEs could be adjusted by the mass ratio of yolk/CMC. The HIPPEs stabilized at yolk/CMC mass ratio 20:7.5 showed optimal printability, viscoelastic, structural recovery, and swallowability. HIPPEs have been applied to 3D printing, International Dysphagia Dietary Standardization Initiative (IDDSI) test, and in vitro digestive simulation in the elderly, indicating their attractive appearance, safe swallowability, and enhanced bioaccessibility of β-carotene. Our work provides new ideas for developing age-friendly foods with plasticity and nutrient delivery capacity by depletion attraction stabilizing HIPPEs.

3D printed emulsion based on arginine-myofibrillar protein

The feasibility of preparing high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) from arginine (Arg) and tilapia myofibrillar protein (MP) complex particles for 3D printing was investigated. The characterization of Arg-MP solutions showed that the Arg-MP complexes had excellent emulsification potential. HIPPE stabilized by Arg-MP had a strong self-supporting and stable gel structure. Therefore, HIPPE stabilized by Arg-MP showed excellent stability. Furthermore, the viscoelasticity and thixotropic recovery of the Arg-MP-stabilized HIPPEs increased with increasing Arg concentrations. This made them suitable for 3D printing. Notably, the Arg-MP stabilized HIPPEs exhibited the best printing precision shape, resolution, and clear contours in 3D printing at an Arg concentration of 0.5 wt%. Our results provide a valuable source of food-grade materials for 3D printing inks and demonstrate a promising strategy for deep processing of tilapia myofibrillar protein.

Influence of carboxymethyl cellulose on the stability, rheology, and curcumin bioaccessibility of high internal phase Pickering emulsions

Recently, there has been a focus on using biopolymer-based particles to stabilize high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) due to the notable advances in biocompatibility and biodegradability. In this work, the complex particles of peanut protein isolate and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) with various substitution degrees (DS; 0.7 and 0.9) and weight average molecular weights (Mw; 90, 250, and 700 kDa) were prepared and characterized as novel stabilizers. For the obtained four types of morphologically distinct particles, the complex particles formed by CMC (0.9 DS and 250 kDa) showed cluster structures with an average size of 1.271 μm, equally biphasic wettability with three-phase contact angles of 91.5°, and the highest diffusion rate at the oil-water interface. HIPPEs stabilized by these particles exhibited more elastic behavior due to the smaller tanδ and higher viscosity, as well as excellent thixotropic recovery properties and stability against heating, storage, and freeze-thawing. Furthermore, confocal laser scanning microscopy verified that these particles formed a dense interfacial layer around the oil droplets, which could resist flocculation and coalescence between oil droplets during in vitro digestion. The improved bioaccessibility of curcumin-loaded HIPPEs made these delivery systems potentially apply in functional foods.

Bibliometric mapping analysis of Pickering emulsion applied in 3D food printing

SummaryThree‐dimensional food printing (3DFP) can produce foods with tailored nutritional content, complex shapes and textures. This technology requires food formulations (food inks) with specific rheological properties. Pickering emulsions (PE) have gained attention due to their long‐term stability and desirable printable properties, making them an excellent candidate for 3DFP. The purpose of this study is to use bibliometric analysis to identify the most important scientific research on PE used in 3DFP. This includes identifying key authors, countries and universities or institutions where the research was conducted, as well as the primary journals that provide information on this topic. Our study provides insight into the relevance of food ink properties for next‐generation 3DFP and the main raw materials used for the development of PE. Out of the 28 original research articles analysed, only 10 countries have studied the application of PE for 3DFP. China and the United Kingdom have been the primary leaders in researching this topic. The Food Hydrocolloids Journal has been the main source of scientific information. The studies cited Pickering stabiliser particles, including soy protein isolate, microcrystalline cellulose and acetylated microcrystalline cellulose, as well as oil phases based on sunflower, canola, olive and soybean oils. High internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) have shown great thermal and conductive stability, making them a promising choice for 3DFP post‐processing. Further studies should assess the bioavailability and bioaccessibility of the bioactive compounds that are encapsulated. It is also important to explore their potential use in real food systems and to integrate innovative packaging solutions.

Study on stabilized mechanism of high internal phase Pickering emulsions based on commercial yeast proteins: Modulating the characteristics of Pickering particle via sonication

The primary significance of this work is that the commercial yeast proteins particles were successfully used to characterize the high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs). The different sonication time (0,3,7,11,15 min) was used to modulate the structure and interface characteristics of yeast proteins (YPs) that as Pickering particles. Immediately afterward, the influence of YPs particles prepared at different sonication time on the rheological behavior and coalescence mechanism of HIPPEs was investigated. The results indicate that the YPs sonicated for 7 min exhibited a more relaxed molecular structures and conformation, the smallest particle size, the highest H0 and optimal amphiphilicity (the three-phase contact (θ) was 88.91°). The transition from extended to compact conformations of YPs occurred when the sonication time exceeded 7 min, resulting in an augmentation of size of YPs particles, a reduction in surface hydrophobicity (H0), and an elevation in hydrophilicity. The HIPPEs stabilized by YPs particles sonicated for 7 min exhibited the highest adsorption interface protein percentage and a more homogeneous three-dimensional (3D) protein network, resulting in the smallest droplet size and the highest storage (G′). The HIPPEs sample that stabilized by YPs particles sonicated for 15 min showed the lowest adsorption protein percentage. This caused a reduction in the thickness of its interface protein layer and an enlargement in the droplet diameter (D [3,2]). It was prone to droplet coalescence according to the equation used to evaluate the coalescence probability of droplets (Eq (2)). And the non-adsorbed YPs particles form larger aggregation structures in the continuous phase and act as “structural agents” in 3D protein network. Therefore, mechanistically, the interface protein layer formed by YPs particles sonicated 7 min contributed more to HIPPEs stability. Whereas the “structural agents” contributed more to HIPPEs stability when the sonication time exceeded 7 min. The present results shed important new light on the application of commercial YPs in the functional food fields, acting as an available and effective alternative protein.

Effect of flaxseed-derived diglyceride-based high internal phase Pickering emulsion on the quality characteristics of reformulated beef burgers

The study aimed to fabricate healthier beef burgers using high internal phase Pickering emulsion (HIPPE) as animal fat substitute. In this context, HIPPE stabilized by modified soy protein isolates was produced with flaxseed-derived diglycerides (DAGs). Beef burgers were prepared by substituting beef backfat with HIPPE at varying levels (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%). Reformulated burgers showed a significant decrease in WHC (from 89.75 to 77.38%), pH (from 5.73 to 5.58), L* values (from 53.5 to 44.5), and b* values (22.9 to 21.8), while a significant increase in a* values (from 24.4 to 6.7), cooking loss (from 20.25 to 30.62), and cooking shrinkage (from 11.27 to 13.05). Texture attributes, including hardness, chewiness, and gumminess, decreased up to 50% fat substitution and increased with increasing levels of fat substitution. Moreover, the rheological properties (G′ and G′′) and T2 relaxation time were increased with increasing fat replacement. The reformulation with HIPPE resulted in a decrease in SFA (from 3896 to 1712 mg/100 g), ω-6/ω-3 ratio (from 5.29 to 0.47), atherogenic index (from 0.57 to 0.13), and thrombogenic index (from 1.46 to 0.15) and increase in PUFA/SFA ratio (from 0.20 to 2.79). Notably, burgers with 50% fat substitution were more preferred regarding tenderness, while those with 100% fat substitution obtained higher scores for color and flavor than all other treatments. In conclusion, 50% fat replacement using flaxseed-derived diglyceride-based HIPPE improved beef burgers' textural profile and fatty acid composition without compromising the sensory characteristics.

Enhanced printability of food-grade edible inks: Emulsions formulated with modified pea protein and sodium alginate

The 3D printing of foods has grown in interest recently due to its ability to create customized or personalized food products. This study focused on the creation of stable high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) for application as edible inks in 3D food printing. These concentrated oil-in-water emulsions were innovatively prepared using modified pea protein isolate (PPI) and sodium alginate (SA) complexes as stabilizers. Pea protein isolate was used in its commercial form (C-PPI) or in a high-pressure homogenized and ultrasonically modified form (HU-PPI). Four types of stabilizers were used to formulate the HIPPEs: C-PPI, HU-PPI, C-PPI-SA, and HU-PPI-SA. The particle size, microstructure, rheology, stability, and 3D printability of the resulting emulsions were characterized. HIPPEs formed using HU-PPI-SA complexes had the smallest particle diameters (<50 μm), as well as a more compact microstructure than those formed using the C-PPI-SA. Rheologically, the HU-PPI-SA stabilized HIPPEs had a higher storage modulus (500 Pa) and apparent shear viscosity (1000 mPa·s), which enhanced their 3D printability. Shapes printed with these emulsions maintained their structural integrity for up to 24 h, indicating the potential of HU-PPI-SA stabilized HIPPEs as edible inks for 3D food printing applications because of their enhanced stability, printability and rheological properties. This study provides new information that could facilitate the development of edible inks that combine good printability and nutritional value to achieve customized nutrition and efficient industrial food production.

Oil-water interfacial behavior of soy protein nanoparticles in high internal phase Pickering emulsion

We investigated the interfacial properties of soy protein isolate (SPI) heat aggregation nanoparticles (SPN) at the oil-water (O/W) interface, as well as the preparation and rheological properties of high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs). Increasing the concentration of SPN led to a reduction in the dynamic interfacial tension (γ) and facilitated the diffusion and permeation processes. The interface became adsorbed by a multilayer protein film, reaching almost saturation, which hindered further rearrangement processes between SPNs. SPN formed a viscoelastic film at the O/W interface, with the interfacial viscoelastic modulus (E) proportional to the SPN concentration, resulting in thicker and stronger interface films. For SPN films with concentrations of 0.2–1.5 wt%, strain hardening was observed during compression and strain softening during extension under relatively large amplitudes (>20%). Conversely, films with concentrations of 2.0–3.0 wt% exhibited a linearly elastic response. Optical microscopy of SPN-stabilized HIPPEs and droplet surface cryo-scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM) indicated that increasing SPN concentration improved interface properties. Furthermore, rheological results on HIPPEs revealed that higher SPN concentrations enhanced viscoelasticity and emulsion recovery. These findings deepen our understanding of soy protein particle adsorption at the O/W interface and the rheological implications for HIPPEs applications.

Unique Crystallization Characteristics of Pickering High Internal Phase Emulsion Templated Porous Constructs.

To study the crystallization behavior of polymeric chains under the influence of porosity, the thermal properties of various nonporous and porous poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) based constructs were investigated. Porous cross-linked PCL nanocomposite constructs were fabricated utilizing in situ polymerization of CL-based surfactant-free Pickering high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs), stabilized using modified fumed silica nanoparticles (mSiNP) at a minimal concentration of 0.6 wt %. The corresponding nanocomposite constructs exhibited polyhedral pore morphology with significant pore roughness due to the presence of mSiNP. DSC thermograms of nonporous constructs illustrated diminished crystallization temperature and kinetics upon cross-linking and inclusion of mSiNP which confirmed suppressed mobility of polymer chains. Further introduction of porosity led to substantial supercooling, resulting in crystallization temperatures as low as -24 °C. Changes in the crystal structure of various nonporous and porous constructs were also studied using XRD. The crystallization behavior of porous constructs was finally evaluated using Jeziorny, Ozawa, and Mo theories under nonisothermal conditions. Significant deviation from the theoretical model, as observed in the case of porous constructs, implied a complex crystallization mechanism that eventually was not only controlled by the chain immobility due to cross-linking but also heterogeneity present in the wall thickness of the constructs. The unique melting-crystallization phenomenon observed in such constructs may further be expanded to other systems of high heat capacity for utilization as energy storage materials.

Fabrication and characterization of fat crystal-stabilized W/O high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) as a low-fat alternative margarine

High internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) stabilized by food grade particles are increasingly being utilized as a viable alternative to saturated and trans fats. Fat crystals are of special interest as the pivotal Pickering particles, while their stabilization mechanisms for HIPPEs are uncharted territory. Herein, beeswax (BW) or palm stearin (PS) were used in a simple one-step process to create W/O HIPPEs containing up to 74.05% (v/v) water, as a low-fat substitute to margarine. The effects of concentration (5 wt% and 8 wt%) and glycerol monooleate (GMO) on the microstructure, thermal, interfacial and rheological properties of these HIPPEs were investigated to decipher the different stabilization mechanisms. All GMO-free samples were stable only when fat crystals concentration was 8 wt%, with BW forming dense coating around the droplets while PS forming a thin shell. After the addition of GMO, all BW-based emulsions were stabilized by the combined effect of Pickering (elastic interfacial layer) and network stabilization, while PS-based HIPPEs were stabilized only at 8 wt% and remained in the form of crystal shells. 8BW-G had a G′ close to 105 Pa, which is similar to that of commercial margarine, and remained stable for at least 1 year in a semi-solid state.

Development of porous materials via protein/polysaccharides/polyphenols nanoparticles stabilized Pickering high internal phase emulsions for adsorption of Pb2+ and Cu2+ ions

The porous materials (PM) were prepared by the Pickering high internal phase emulsion (PHIPE) template. Firstly, the nanoparticles named as ZHMNPs or MZHMNPs were fabricated based on zein, Hohenbuehelia serotina polysaccharides and Malus baccata (Linn.) Borkh polyphenols without or with Maillard reaction, the average particle sizes and zeta potentials of which were distributed in a range of 718.1–979.4 nm and −21.6–25.2 mV. ZHMNPs possessed the relatively uniform spherical morphology, while MZHMNPs were irregular in shape. With ZHMNPs or MZHMNPs serving as the stabilizers, the PHIPEs were prepared, and exhibited the good viscoelasticity and excellent storage and freeze–thaw stabilities. Based on above PHIPEs template, the constructed PM possessed the large specific surface area and uniform pore structure. Through the investigations of adsorption performances, PM showed the outstanding adsorption capacities on Pb2+ and Cu2+ ions regardless of dissolving in deionized water or simulated gastrointestinal digestive fluid. Furthermore, the results also showed that the pH, temperature and adsorbent dosage had certain impacts on the adsorption performances of PM on Pb2+ and Cu2+ ions.

High internal phase pickering emulsion with DHA-algal oil stabilized by salmon protein-procyanidin complex and its application in sausages as fat replacer

The protective effect of the high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) stabilized by salmon protein-procyanidins complex (SPC) on the algal oil and its application in sausages as a fat substitute were demonstrated in this study. The SPC was formed by the electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding to stabilize HIPPEs. The reduction of interfacial tension and the increase of three-phase contact angle from 58.3° to 78.7° further demonstrated the improved emulsification of SPC. With the SPC concentration changing from 0.5 % to 2.5 %, the emulsion stabilized by SPC droplets gradually become uniform and compact. The HIPPEs stabilized by SPC displayed good rheological properties and good thermal stability, and there was no demulsification with the increase of temperature. The emulsions stabilized by SPC also exhibited good storage stability, and the antioxidant activity of procyanidin in SPC resulted in the retention rate of DHA remaining as high as 70 % after 15 days of storage and the oxidation rate of internal phase was greatly slowed down. The sausages with complete fat replacement by HIPPEs had good textural properties and the cooking loss was reduced by 67 %. HIPPEs might become a solid fat substitutes served as a low-fat food used in the development of meat industry.