Physiological Training Effects Research Articles

Water aerobic training in cardiac rehabilitation programs

Water aerobic training can be considered as an additional method of exercise in the rehabilitation of cardiovascular patients. The review examines the physiological effects of water training, the potential of its use in different categories of cardiac patients, its advantages, dosing the load and monitoring its intensity in the aquatic environment. The practical aspects of aqua aerobic training are discussed, and research data on its safety and effectiveness in cardiac rehabilitation programs is provided.

Simulated Altitude Training and Sport Performance: Protocols and Physiological Effects

This article explores the physiological mechanisms and effects of simulated hypoxia environment training on sports performance. Different training protocols, including hypoxia high-intensity interval training (HHIIT), incremental hypoxia training, hypoxia submaximal exercise training and combined training, and hypoxia training in the recovery and sleep states, are discussed. HHIIT combines intermittent hypoxia exposure with high-intensity interval training, and has been shown to increase the maximum oxygen intake compare to the state of normoxia, improving cardiorespiratory fitness, skeletal muscle oxygen utilization, power performance, hematological adaptations, and sports performance. Incremental hypoxia training involves the gradual decrease in oxygen concentration while maintaining exercise intensity. It has been found to improve aerobic capacity; however, fewer effects were observed in hematological variables. Hypoxia submaximal exercise training and combined training in a hypoxia environment has shown to increase VO2 and VE, and only improve hemodynamic function in combined training with hypoxia. Hypoxia during the recovery state has been associated with improvements in maximum oxygen uptake, also providing benefits to sports performance. Overall, exposure to a hypoxia environment has been demonstrated to improve cardiorespiratory endurance, power performance, and specific physiological adaptations in training and resting states. However, the optimal training protocols and their effects on different sports and athlete proficiency require further research to optimize training and enhance athletic performance in hypoxia environments.

Acute Physiological Effects Of Supramaximal High-intensity Interval Training In People With Or Without COPD

Acute Physiological Effects Of Supramaximal High-intensity Interval Training In People With Or Without COPD

Physiological and performance effects of high-intensity interval training in tennis players: a systematic review

The purpose of this systematic review was to overview the physiological and performance effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in tennis players. Searches for this review were performed by using four electronic databases: Web of Science, Scopus, SPORTDiscus with Full-Text, and PubMed. Intervention studies investigating the effects of HIIT on tennis players were searched from inception to December 29th, 2021. Seven studies met all of the inclusion criteria and were included in the study. The findings revealed that tennis players who participated in HIIT interventions had improved their aerobic capacity and tennis performance. Fluctuating results were reported for agility, sprint, and jump performances. In conclusion, the results of the review may suggest that HIIT is more beneficial for tennis players to achieve improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness and technical abilities regardless of age, gender, and competitive level.

The feasibility, safety, physiological and clinical effects of high-intensity interval training for people with Parkinson's: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Exercise is important for people with Parkinson's (PwP), with high-intensity interval training (HIIT) proposed as a feasible and effective exercise modality. However, no literature synthesis for PwP has been undertaken. To evaluate the feasibility, safety, physiological and clinical effects of HIIT for PwP. Systematic searches of Medline, Embase, CINAHL, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were undertaken. Studies that included ≥ 2weeks of HIIT for PwP and reported sufficient detail for full quality assessment were eligible. Quality was assessed with the TESTEX scale or the Downs and Black tool according to study design. Feasibility and safety data, physiological and clinical outcomes were extracted. Meta-analyses explored the pooled effects of HIIT on VO2peak/max compared to moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) and usual care. Eleven articles were identified (seven controlled/comparator studies and four single group) including 117 HIIT participants predominantly of mild-to-moderate disease severity. HIIT programmes were professionally supervised and between 6weeks and 24months. Overall, study quality was deemed to be moderate to good. Following screening, nine studies reported 90-100% programme completion; however, only one was > 12weeks in duration. Adverse events were uncommon. HIIT improved VO2peak/max compared to usual care, but not to MICE. Increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and improved motor symptoms were also reported. Up to 12weeks of supervised HIIT appears to be feasible and safe for some people with mild-to-moderate disease severity. HIIT improves cardiorespiratory fitness and may increase BDNF and improve motor symptoms in PwP. Future studies should explore safe ways to facilitate access and long-term adherence.

Effects of High-Intensity Aerobic Interval Training on Cardiopulmonary Function in Patients With Chronic Heart Failure at The University Teaching Hospital, Lusaka, Zambia

Chronic heart failure patients present with a wide variety of symptoms such as, fatigue and dyspnea, which adversely affect their quality of life. Heart failure is a complex disease and a major cause of morbidity and mortality in developed and developing countries including Zambia. Through studies undertaken, high intensity aerobic interval training has been recommended in patients with chronic heart failure, to help improve symptoms and consequently the quality of life. Minimal research pertaining to effectiveness of aerobic exercise on various physiological parameters such as peripheral oxygen saturation, cardiopulmonary capacity and quality of life have been done in Africa and Zambia. Methods: This study evaluated the physiological effects of high intensity aerobic interval training on the cardiopulmonary function in New York Heart Association (NYHA) Class II and III chronic heart failure patients with a focus on peripheral oxygen delivery/saturation, cardiopulmonary capacity and the quality of life. This study utilised the Randomised Clinical Trial (RCT) study design and the study population was selected from the University Teaching Hospital-Heart clinic in Lusaka, Zambia. Results: A total number of 42 patients participated, and were randomly assigned to the two arms of the study. Twenty-one (21) were assigned to the interventional group (IG) and 21 to the control group (CG) respectively. The IG underwent a 12 week aerobic HIIT exercise-training program, while the CG was subjected to 30 minutes’ walk on a treadmill for the same period of 12 weeks. The expected primary outcomes were the baseline to endline differences in oxygen delivery/saturation readings, cardiopulmonary capacity test readings and the quality of life (measured using the Minnesota questionnaire) for both groups. The results obtained from the pulse oximeter readings, showed an increase in the oxygen saturation readings (97.90 to 98.62%), 6-minute walk distance readings (360.05 m to 429 m) and the questionnaire score totals of the different dimensions (physical, emotional/mental and socio-psychological factors) of the questionnaire (p-value ;0.0001) of the IG. The CG oxygen saturation readings (97.38 % to 97.90%) and 6-minute walk tests scores (359.14 to 370.9 m) showed minimal change. While, the questionnaire scores showed a statistical difference in the emotional/mental (p-value < 0.0001), physical (p=0.005) and socio-psychological factors (p- value < 0.0001). Conclusion: High intensity aerobic interval training has shown to improve the peripheral oxygen delivery, cardiopulmonary capacity and quality of life in chronic heart failure patients hence, must be considered as an adjunct therapy aside pharmacological management in stable chronic heart failure patients in Zambia.

Physiological Effects of Training in Elite German Winter Sport Athletes: Sport Specific Remodeling Determined Using Echocardiographic Data and CPET Performance Parameters.

Nine ski mountaineering (Ski-Mo), ten Nordic-cross country (NCC), and twelve world elite biathlon (Bia) athletes were evaluated for cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) performance and pronounced echocardiographic physiological cardiac remodeling as a primary aim of our descriptive preliminary report. In this context, a multicenter retrospective analysis of two-dimensional echocardiographic data including speckle tracking of the left ventricle (LV-GLS) and CPET performance analysis was performed in 31 elite world winter sports athletes, which were obtained during the annual sports medicine examination between 2020 and 2021. The matched data of the elite winter sports athletes (14 women, 17 male athletes, age: 18–32 years) were compared for different CPET and echocardiographic parameters, anthropometric data, and sport-specific training schedules. Significant differences could be revealed for left atrial (LA) remodeling by LA volume index (LAVI, p = 0.0052), LV-GLS (p = 0.0003), and LV mass index (LV Mass index, p = 0.0078) between the participating disciplines. All participating athletes showed excellent performance data in the CPET analyses, whereby significant differences were revealed for highest maximum respiratory minute volume (VE maximum) and the maximum oxygen pulse level across the participating athletes. This study on sport specific physiological demands in elite winter sport athletes provides new evidence that significant differences in CPET and cardiac remodeling of the left heart can be identified based on the individual athlete’s training schedule, frequency, and physique.

Psychological, Physiological, and Physical Effects of Resistance Training and Personalized Diet in Celiac Women.

BackgroundGluten intolerance is a systemic process of autoimmune nature; it develops in genetically predisposed subjects with gluten ingestion. The only treatment for celiac disease (CD) is a lifelong strict gluten-free diet (GFD). This study was designed to evaluate adherence to a GFD, risk of an eating disorder, and nutritional status in adult CD patients undergoing different interventions.MethodsA total of 28 Spanish women, aged 40 years or more, took part in a randomized controlled trial. Each group received a different intervention: group 1, gluten-free nutrition plan + exercise (GFD + E); group 2, gluten-free nutrition plan (GFD); group 3, celiac controls (NO-GFD); and group 4, non-celiac controls (CONTROL). The training was prescribed by a sport scientist. It was based on resistance training with elastic bands; beforehand a warm-up was performed and the resistance was increased progressively. The variables studied were adherence to the GFD, risk of eating disorders, blood values, and body composition.ResultsCeliac women with personalized nutritional planning presented greater adherence to a gluten-free diet (p < 0.001). Regarding leukocytes, significant differences were observed between the GFD and control groups (p = 0.004). Perimeters and folds did not decrease significantly.ConclusionWomen with celiac disease who follow an adapted and personalized diet have a better adherence to a GFD compared to those who follow a non-professional diet, and therefore have a better immune system status (blood leukocytes).

Comparison of Physical and Physiological Effects of Continuous and Interval Running Training in Elite Adults

Aim: It is known that endurance trainings increase physiological adaptations. However, knowledge on its effects on physical and motor performance is insufficient. Therefore, this study aims to compare the effects of 8-week continuous and interval endurance runs on physical and physiological performance in elite adults. Material and Methods: A total of 18 adult male athletes between the ages of 19-25, consisting of continuous runs (CR) n:9 and interval group (IG) n:9, participated in the study. While the continuous running group (CR) was subject to the continuous running method 3 days a week for 8 weeks, interval running method was used for the other group. Experimental research model, including pre-test and post-test, was used in the study. Body weight measurement, 20-meters speed, vertical and horizontal jump, cooper, balance, sit-reach tests were applied to the athletes participating in the study before and after the training program. Variance and homogeneity of the obtained data were tested, and Independent Samples t test and Paired Samples t tests were used in the analysis of the data. Results: After the interval and continuous running training programs, the change in body weight and Cooper test values before and after the interval training and continuous running groups were found to be statistically significant (p&lt;0.05). It was observed that the changes in the standing long jump, speed, vertical jump, balance and sit-and-reach flexibility test values of the interval training group before and after the training were statistically significant (p&lt;0.05) while the change in the continuous running group was not statistically significant. In addition, it was determined that there was a significant change in the balance post-test values in the interval training group compared to the pre-test values. Conclusion: As a result, it shows that the interval and continuous running training programs applied have positive effects on body weight and endurance, and when interval training and continuous running training programs are compared, interval trainings can be efficient in terms of balance, flexibility, vertical and horizontal jump, and 20-meters speed performances. Keywords: Endurance, Continuous runs, Interval Training, Motor Performance

Effects of LHTH Training at 1600 m on Exercise Performance, Complete Blood Count and Erythropoietin: A Case Study of South Korean Elite Male Cross-Country Skiers

Background: In altitude training for elite athletes, altitudes below 1700 m are generally known to have low physiological stimulation and training effects. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of live high train high (LHTH) altitude training at an altitude of 1600 m on athletic performance, complete blood count (CBC), and erythropoietin (EPO) in cross-country skiers. Methods: In this study, South Korean Six male cross-country skiers participated. Exercise performance, CBC, and EPO were measured 3 days before altitude training and 4 days after the end of altitude training. The training program in this study was the LHTH altitude training method, and the polarized (POL) training program was applied. For exercise performance analysis the Bruce protocol was applied using a treadmill and gas analyzer. Blood variables CBC (red blood cell; RBC, white blood cell; WBC, hemoglobin; Hb, hematocrit; Hct, platelets) and EPO were measured at rest and immediately after exercise. Results: The effect of 3 weeks of LHTH altitude training on male cross-country skiers was as follows. There were no differences in body weight, muscle mass, body fat mass, or body fat percentage (p &gt; 0.05). Although maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) increased (p &lt; 0.05), there was no significant difference in exercise time and maximum heart rate (HRmax) (p &gt; 0.05). The heart rate measured at 2 minutes after the end of exercise decreased rapidly (p &lt; 0.05). At rest, RBC, Hb, and Hct were increased (p &lt; 0.001), but there was no significant difference between WBC and platelets (p &gt; 0.05). Immediately after exercise, there was no significant difference in RBC and Hb (p &gt; 0.05), but WBC (p &lt; 0.001), platelets (p &lt; 0.01), and Hct (p &lt; 0.05) were significantly decreased. EPO was significantly decreased after training compared to before altitude training at rest and immediately after exercise (p &lt; 0.001). Conclusions: The results of this study suggested that 3 weeks of LHTH training at an altitude of 1600 m could stimulate RBC, Hb, and Hct. Also, improved VO2max and recovery capacity along with increases in RBC and Hb mean that LHTH training at an altitude of 1600 m could induce a positive effect on physiological and performance changes in male cross-country skiers. We did not have a control group, and we do admit some limitations, including height adjustment, length of altitude training, and training program (intensity and volume). Nevertheless, LHTH training at an altitude of 1600 m can be a desirable intervention program when planning short-term altitude training for technical and physiological improvement in male cross-country skiers. In addition, it is suggested that exercise and living at high altitude stimulate blood variables and cardiopulmonary function, which will have a positive effect on exercise performance and health promotion not only for athletes but also for men in general.

Physiological Effect of Exercise Training with Whole Body Electric Muscle Stimulation Suit on Strength and Balance in Young Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Many studies about Electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) have been performed to determine the effectiveness of EMS. However, most studies enrolled only elderly patients. Moreover, only a few studies have verified the effect of a whole body (WB)-EMS suit on young healthy women. Thus, the main purpose of this study was to verify the physiological effects of exercise training with a WB-EMS suit in young women. During the study periods, 24 young women were randomly assigned into two groups: 1) the WB-EMS training group, and 2) the control. All participants in the two groups performed the same low-intensity resistance exercise three times a week for 6 weeks at a training center. Group 1 used an electric current for WB-EMS suit which was switched on during the exercise period. Outcome measures were body composition, body circumference of hips and abdomen, isokinetic muscle function of knees, balance functions, Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)s, cardiopulmonary functions, and lipid profiles. All outcomes were measured before and after the exercise protocol over 6 weeks. A total of 23 young women (group 1, n=11; group 2, n=12) completed a 6-week exercise regimen. After exercise, we compared the differences before and after the exercise program in each group. There were significant differences (p≤0.05) in body circumference, cardiopulmonary function in group 1 and 2. In particular, group 1 that activated WB-EMS showed significant differences in the isokinetic muscle function on knee flexors and balance functions. The results of this study show that exercise with a WB-EMS suit can be considered as an effective exercise addition for young women.

Physiological Effects of Strength Training Incorporating Blood Flow Restriction Underwater

Physiological Effects of Strength Training Incorporating Blood Flow Restriction Underwater

Frequency Range Measures in Carnatic Singers

Frequency range measures in singers reflect their physiological capacity, vocal flexibility, training effects, strengths, and limitations in singing. Since this information is vital for pedagogic and clinical purposes, this study aimed to measure the frequency range in Carnatic singers while singing different aspects of the vocal music. Practice task (gliding from lowest to highest note) and performance task (singing a song with vocal ornaments) were recorded from 55 trained Carnatic singers (40 females and 15 males). The auditorily verified portions of various vocal ornaments in Carnatic singing (such as aalapanai, pallavi, anupallavi, charanam, and niraval) were coded as separate tokens. A total of 385 tokens were analyzed using PRAAT software for estimating frequency range in semitones during practice task (SFRprac) and performance task (SFRperf). Descriptive, ANOVA, Tukey HSD, independent t, and Mann-Whitney U were used for statistical analysis. SFRprac was higher than SFRperf in Carnatic singers. During practice, singers explored their physiological range to improve their vocal ability. However, during performance they tend to maintain a comfortable singing range to have a flawless rendition. Aalapanai (most creative portion) had the highest frequency range (females: 22.96 ST, males: 24.57 ST) than other types of vocal ornaments in performance signing. Practice frequency range (SFRprac) and performance frequency range (SFRperf) were not statistically different across male and female singers. This study described the frequency range measures in various aspects and nuances of Carnatic singing. Its clinical and pedagogic importance are discussed.

ECG-derived Aerobic And Anaerobic Indices For Training Efficiency Tracking

There is a continuous search for indirect methods and simple criteria to evaluate physiological effects of training. ECG analysis provides a relevant option for routine monitoring as it can be supported in real-time mobile or wearable device applications. Determination of the optimal ECG features is essential for monitoring and assessing systems. PURPOSE: To introduce ECG-derived aerobic index (AI) and anaerobic index (ANI) which could determine training effects and indicate subject’s metabolic state. METHODS: A healthy, physically active subject performed endurance and strength trainings 3 times a week. He fulfilled 55 ECG measurements using single-lead wrist-wearable device before and after 28 trainings. ECG signals were processed with detection of QRS-complex. AI and ANI were calculated as R-peak normalized to S-R complex slope and as S-T complex slope normalized to R-S slope. Correlations of AI and ANI with training load were calculated using Pearson correlation coefficient (r) with p value. RESULTS: Correlations between AI and aerobic load as well as ANI and anaerobic load were identified. The more energy was burned during training, the lower indices were registered. As shown in Figure, maximum of negative correlation between AI with aerobic load was in 60 min after training (r=-0.57, p<0.01). ANI showed negative correlation with anaerobic load (r=-0.35, p<0.01) in 30 min after training. CONCLUSION: Proposed ECG-derived aerobic and anaerobic indices showed statistically significant correlations with training load and could be used as assessed individual parameters of the degree of training in fitness and sport medicine. Figure. Dependences of ECG-derived aerobic (A) and anaerobic (B) indices on energy, burned during aerobic and anaerobic load. Correlation curves with confidence bounds (95 %).

Metabolic and physiological effects of high intensity interval training in patients with knee osteoarthritis: A pilot and feasibility study

To examine the feasibility of a 6-week high intensity interval training (HIIT) program in patients with symptomatic knee osteoarthritis (OA). A secondary aim was to evaluate the change in whole-body metabolism. In a single-arm intervention, 16 adults (mean age 59.9yrs; BMI: 29.0±4.3kg/m2; 77% female) with radiographically diagnosed knee OA (Kellgren-Lawrence [KLG]: 2-4) and moderate to severe pain score (≥6) from the Western Ontario and McMasters Universities Index (WOMAC) enrolled in a 6-week, twice weekly, supervised HIIT cycle ergometry intervention. The primary outcome was feasibility; secondary outcomes included change in peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak), WOMAC, and circulating biomarkers of metabolism. Feasibility was moderate; of the 21 participants screened by phone, 16 were enrolled; 13 completed pre- and post-testing. The average adherence rate (sessions completed/available) was >96%. VO2peak was significantly improved (mean±SD: 2.6±3.0mL/min/kg; 95% CI [0.70-4.56]). Significant improvements in WOMAC (mean±SD: -8.7±12.5; CI: [18.9 to -2.80]), pain [-5.15 to -1.01], and function [-12.9 to -0.98] resulted. There was a significant reduction in concentrations of amino acids: methionine, phenylalanine, and tyrosine (p<0.02 for all), with trends towards lower concentrations of serine (p=0.08; [-20.66-1.18]) and greater aspartate/asparagine (p=0.06; [-1.99-65.73].). Post-training acylcarnitine concentrations were reduced with training. In this cohort of overweight adults with symptomatic knee OA, 6-weeks of HIIT cycling showed excellent rates of retention and adherence with no adverse events, improved cardiorespiratory fitness and OA symptoms, in concert with metabolic alterations indicative of improved skeletal muscle energetics. clinicaltrials.gov: NCT03039452.

Effect of post-implant exercise on tumour growth rate, perfusion and hypoxia in mice.

Preclinical studies have shown a larger inhibition of tumour growth when exercise begins prior to tumour implant (preventative setting) than when training begins after tumour implant (therapeutic setting). However, post-implantation exercise may alter the tumour microenvironment to make it more vulnerable to treatment by increasing tumour perfusion while reducing hypoxia. This has been shown most convincingly in breast and prostate cancer models to date and it is unclear whether other tumour types respond in a similar way. We aimed to determine whether tumour perfusion and hypoxia are altered with exercise in a melanoma model, and compared this with a breast cancer model. We hypothesised that post-implantation exercise would reduce tumour hypoxia and increase perfusion in these two models. Female, 6-10 week old C57BL/6 mice were inoculated with EO771 breast or B16-F10 melanoma tumour cells before randomisation to either exercise or non-exercising control. Exercising mice received a running wheel with a revolution counter. Mice were euthanised when tumours reached maximum ethical size and the tumours assessed for perfusion, hypoxia, blood vessel density and proliferation. We saw an increase in heart to body weight ratio in exercising compared with non-exercising mice (p = 0.0008), indicating that physiological changes occurred with this form of physical activity. However, exercise did not affect vascularity, perfusion, hypoxia or tumour growth rate in either tumour type. In addition, EO771 tumours had a more aggressive phenotype than B16-F10 tumours, as inferred from a higher rate of proliferation (p<0.0001), a higher level of tumour hypoxia (p = 0.0063) and a higher number of CD31+ vessels (p = 0.0005). Our results show that although a physiological training effect was seen with exercise, it did not affect tumour hypoxia, perfusion or growth rate. We suggest that exercise monotherapy is minimally effective and that future preclinical work should focus on the combination of exercise with standard cancer therapies.

Can Proprioceptive Training Reduce Muscle Fatigue in Patients With Motor Neuron Diseases? A New Direction of Treatment.

Muscle fatigue is a serious problem in patients with motor neuron diseases (MNDs). It commonly disturbs both daily life activity and rehabilitation tolerance. A particular concern should be taken when MNDs occur in older ages. Older patients with MNDs usually have a worse clinical presentation and a lower survival rate. This could increase the occurrence of muscle fatigue. Muscle fatigue occurs due to a dysfunction in either motor or sensory systems. Current exercise interventions performed to decrease the occurrence of muscle fatigue focused only on treating motor causes of muscle fatigue. It has been demonstrated that these interventions have a high debate in their effectiveness on decreasing the occurrence of muscle fatigue. Also, these exercise interventions ignored training the affected sensory part of muscle fatigue, however, the important role of the sensory system in driving the motor system. Thus, this review aimed to develop a novel exercise intervention by using proprioceptive training as an intervention to decrease the occurrence of muscle fatigue in patients with MNDs particularly, older ones. The physiological effects of proprioceptive training to decrease the occurrence of muscle fatigue could include two effects. The first effect includes the ability of the proprioceptive training to increase the sensitivity of muscle spindles as an attempt to normalize the firing rate of α-motoneurons, which their abnormalities have major roles in the occurrence of muscle fatigue. The second effect includes its ability to correct the abnormal movement-compensations, which develop due to the biomechanical constraints imposed on patients with MNDs.

Is Two Better Than One? The Impact of Doubling Training Volume in Severe COPD: A Randomized Controlled Study

Patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are unable to exercise at high intensities for sufficiently long periods of time to obtain true physiological training effects. It therefore appears sensible to increase training duration at sub-maximal exercise intensities to optimize the benefit of exercise training. We compared the effects on exercise tolerance of two endurance cycloergometer submaximal exercise protocols with different cumulative training loads (one (G1) versus two (G2) daily 40 min training sessions) both implemented over 20 consecutive days in 149 patients with COPD (forced expiratory volume at first second (FEV1): 39% predicted) admitted to an inpatient pulmonary rehabilitation program. Patients in G2 exhibited greater improvement (p = 0.011) in submaximal endurance time (from 258 (197) to 741 (662) sec) compared to G1 (from 303 (237) to 530 (555) sec). Clinically meaningful improvements in health-related quality of life, 6MWT, and chronic dyspnea were not different between groups. Doubling the volume of endurance training is feasible and can lead to an additional benefit on exercise tolerance. Future studies may investigate the applicability and benefits of this training strategy in the outpatient or community-based pulmonary rehabilitation settings to amplify the benefits of exercise interventions.

Psychological and Physiological Effects of Continuous Resistance Training

Psychological and Physiological Effects of Continuous Resistance Training

Limitation of Maximal Heart Rate in Hypoxia: Mechanisms and Clinical Importance.

The use of exercise intervention in hypoxia has grown in popularity amongst patients, with encouraging results compared to similar intervention in normoxia. The prescription of exercise for patients largely rely on heart rate recordings (percentage of maximal heart rate (HRmax) or heart rate reserve). It is known that HRmax decreases with high altitude and the duration of the stay (acclimatization). At an altitude typically chosen for training (2,000-3,500 m) conflicting results have been found. Whether or not this decrease exists or not is of importance since the results of previous studies assessing hypoxic training based on HR may be biased due to improper intensity. By pooling the results of 86 studies, this literature review emphasizes that HRmax decreases progressively with increasing hypoxia. The dose–response is roughly linear and starts at a low altitude, but with large inter-study variabilities. Sex or age does not seem to be a major contributor in the HRmax decline with altitude. Rather, it seems that the greater the reduction in arterial oxygen saturation, the greater the reduction in HRmax, due to an over activity of the parasympathetic nervous system. Only a few studies reported HRmax at sea/low level and altitude with patients. Altogether, due to very different experimental design, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions in these different clinical categories of people. Hence, forthcoming studies in specific groups of patients are required to properly evaluate (1) the HRmax change during acute hypoxia and the contributing factors, and (2) the physiological and clinical effects of exercise training in hypoxia with adequate prescription of exercise training intensity if based on heart rate.