Physics Option Research Articles

Exploring the Real-Time WRF Forecast Skill for Four Tropical Storms, Isaias, Henri, Elsa and Irene, as They Impacted the Northeast United States

Tropical storm Isaias (2020) moved quickly northeast after its landfall in North Carolina and caused extensive damage to the east coast of the United States, with electric power distribution disruptions, infrastructure losses and significant economic and societal impacts. Improving the real-time prediction of tropical storms like Isaias can enable accurate disaster preparedness and strategy. We have explored the configuration, initialization and physics options of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model to improve the deterministic forecast for Isaias. The model performance has been evaluated based on the forecast of the storm track, intensity, wind and precipitation, with the support from in situ measurements and stage IV remote sensing products. Our results indicate that the Global Forecasting System (GFS) provides overall better initial and boundary conditions compared to the North American Model (NAM) for wind, mean sea level pressure and precipitation. The combination of tropical suite physics options and GFS initialization provided the best forecast improvement, with error reduction of 36% and an increase of the correlation by 11%. The choices for model spin-up time and forecast cycle did not affect the forecast of the storm significantly. In order to check the consistency of the result found from the investigation related to TS Isaias, Irene (2011), Henri (2021) and Elsa (2021), three other tropical storms, were also investigated. Similar to Isaias, these storms are simulated with NAM and GFS initialization and different physics options. The overall results for Henri and Elsa indicate that the models with GFS initialization and tropical suite physics reduced error by 44% and 57%, respectively, which resonates with the findings from the TS Isaias investigation. For Irene, the initialization used an older GFS version and showed increases in error, but applying the tropical physics option decreased the error by 20%. Our recommendation is to consider GFS for the initialization of the WRF model and the tropical physics suite in a future tropical storm forecast for the NE US.

Numerical simulation of a widespread lightning event over north India using an ensemble of WRF modeling configurations

Widespread event of lightning occurred in two states of eastern India on June 25, 2020, killing 83 people in Bihar and 24 people in Uttar Pradesh (UP). Lightning event is studied using ground-based lightning observational data and Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. A Specialized forecast system for lightning and thunderstorm is needed to minimize the loss of lives. The updraft and ice particle concentration play essential roles in the initialization of lightning inside the thundercloud. The charge generation and separation inside the clouds play an essential role in the severity of lightning. The Lightning Potential Index (LPI) measures the potential of charge generation and separation inside the clouds. It plays a significant role in determining lightning-prone zones.As the monsoon intensified over the Indo Gangetic Plains, lightning simulation is carried out using an ensemble of different WRF model configurations. The model has been integrated from 24th June 0000 UTC to 26th June 0600 UTC with an ensemble of 9 members. 8 members are simulated with a single domain (3 km resolution), and only the second member is simulated with a triple nested domain (9, 3, and 1 km resolution) over Bihar. The ensemble consists of 1 control +8 members with different configurations of the WRF model. LPI is calculated using the model-derived parameters. Furthermore, the model explicitly simulated lightning flash count using a lightning parameterization scheme. The results are analyzed using the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) ground-based observation data. Every ensemble member's results are distinct from each other. This shows the sensitivity of every configuration. Member 2 (M2) is the triple nested member; it uses the same physics option as member 1 (M1). Moreover, M2 shows comparatively good results towards the observation. Simulated radar reflectivity is compared and analyzed using Indian National Satellite System (INSAT-3D) 3D Brightness Temperature (BT). To check the results of all ensemble members model skill score has been calculated. Ensemble probability is calculated to measure the spatial pattern and threat of lightning based on LPI, and it recorded the high lightning threat (90–100) % probability over northwest Bihar (Gopalganj), and it also recorded the heavy rainfall (300 mm). The skill scores of simulated lightning flash count in M2, M8, and M9 showed reasonably good POD values (0.6, 0.5, and 0.69, respectively).

Effect of Visuospatial Ability on E-learning for Pupils of Physics Option in Scientific Common Trunk

This study aims to reveal the existence of a relationship between the visuospatial capacity of pupils with a specialization in physics, with high educational performance, and the capacity for E-learning. To achieve the study, we used the Wechsler intelligence test of cognitive ability. Our sample is composed of 204 adolescents, whose average age is 15 years, 12 months, and 11 days, with a standard deviation of 00 years, 1 month and 19 days. The selection criterion was based on the general results and specifically the physics science mark. The results of the study showed the existence of a significant relationship between visuospatial ability and scientific thinking, and statistically significant homogeneity attributed to specialization in visuospatial ability and creative thinking.

Geant4-DNA modeling of nanodosimetric quantities in the Jet Counter for alpha particles

The purpose of this work was to validate the calculation accuracy of nanodosimetric quantities in Geant4-DNA track structure simulation code. We implemented the Jet Counter (JC) nanodosimeter geometry in the simulation platform and quantified the impact of the Geant4-DNA physics models and JC detector performance on the ionization cluster size distributions (ICSD). ICSD parameters characterize the quality of radiation field and are supposed to be correlated to the complexity of the initial DNA damage in nanoscale and eventually the response of biological systems to radiation. We compared Monte Carlo simulations of ICSD in JC geometry performed using Geant4-DNA and PTra codes with experimental data collected for alpha particles at 3.8 MeV. We investigated the impact of simulation and experimental settings, i.e., three Geant4-DNA physics models, three sizes of a nanometer sensitive volume, gas to water density scaling procedure, JC ion extraction efficiency and the presence of passive components of the detector on the ICSD and their parameters. We found that ICSD in JC geometry obtained from Geant4-DNA simulations in water correspond well to ICSD measurements in nitrogen gas for all investigated settings, while the best agreement is for Geant4-DNA physics option 4. This work also discusses the accuracy and robustness of ICSD parameters in the context of the application of track structure simulation methods for treatment planning in particle therapy.

Pinpointing optimized air quality model performance over the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region: Mosaic approach

Mosaic approach, with certain number of tiles representing land use (LU) types in each grid cell, had been implemented into WRF-Noah model. Previous studies found mosaic approach had a better performance on meteorological parameters than only considering dominant LU in dominant approach. In this study, the impacts of mosaic approach on meteorological parameters and air quality were investigated in WRF-CMAQ over Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region in China in 2020. Results showed that mosaic approach improved the simulation results of WS10 (surface wind speed at 10 m), T2 (temperature at 2 m), and RH (relative humidity) especially in nighttime in winter and were available for all stations with different percent of urban area. “MOS_TOPO” scenario, which coupled with mosaic approach and “topo-wind” schemes, obtained best simulation results of WS10 and T2 in January among six scenarios, with the lower average Root Mean Square Error of WS10 (1.18 m/s) and Mean Bias of T2 (0.55 °C) for all stations. Meanwhile, mosaic approach obtained lower |NMB| of PM2.5 than dominant approach in more than 69% cities in BTH region. Cities in southern Hebei province, especially Xingtai city, were identified as the most sensitive area for PM2.5 simulation affected by mosaic approach. Although the mosaic approach has improved the simulation results of meteorological parameters, especially the nighttime simulation results of WS10, there is still some deviation in the simulation results of PM2.5. Accurate emission inventory, suitable physics option in numerical weather model and rational chemical mechanism in air quality model are the important factors for WRF-CMAQ.

URBAN MICRO CLIMATE MODELLING USING DIFFERENT URBAN PHYISCS SCHEMES AND HIGH RESOLUTION LULC WITH WRF MODEL

Abstract. Urban areas are treated as a single entity by mesoscale urban canopy models (UCM) for assessing the influence of urban morphology on climate. Weather Research and Forecasting Model (WRF) coupled with UCM along with urban physics options to describe the urban features such as Single Layer Urban Canopy Model (SLUCM), Building Energy Parameterization (BEP) and Building Energy Model (BEM) which enumerates the influence of urban features on the local scale other than the bulk parameterization (no urban physics option), which is generally used in most of the operational forecasting models. Besides, WRF model also enables to integrate multi-class Urban Land Use Land Cover (LULC) whereas most of the globally available LULC depict urban area as single urban built-up class. This study aims to analyze performance of high resolution urban LULC and urban physics options for Chandigarh area by downscaling climatic variables up to 1km and its validation with the ground observation data. The inner domain (1 km resolution) was configured with default LULC for one set of simulations and multi-class urban LULC for other set of simulations. All the simulations were carried out for 3 days (August 19–21, 2017) due to computational restrictions by employing all the four urban physics options. It has been found that multi-class urban LULC yielded better results than single class urban built –up simulation when validated with respect to ground observation. The RMSE values for multi-class urban LULC provided less RMSE than single class urban LULC, those are in terms of temperature at 2 m, relative humidity and wind speed are 0.91 °C, 2.63% and 1.82 m/s respectively. Similarly, BEP+BEM urban physics option provided reduced RMSE values than the SLUCM and BEP scheme. The RMSE values in terms of temperature at 2 m, relative humidity and wind speed are 1.11 °C, 4.39% and 2.62 m/s respectively.

Impact of microphysics parameterization schemes in simulation of vardah cyclone using the advanced mesoscale weather research and forecasting model

The very severe Tropical Cyclone Vardah caused huge damage to property and life in south India during December 2016. The sensitivity of numerical simulations of the very severe tropical cyclone Vardah to different physics parameterization schemes is carried out to determine the best microphysics and cumulus physics parameterization schemes. The WRF Numerical weather prediction model configured with two nested domains. The horizontal resolution of domain-1is 27 km and domain-2 is 9 km. The tropical cyclone Vardah simulated track results were compared with the best track data given by the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD). WRF model Simulations were carried out using different microphysics (mp) parameterization schemes by fixing convective cumulus physics (cu) option to Grell-3D ensemble scheme and boundary layer option to updated Yonsei University scheme. The Vardah Cyclone track well simulated using WRF Single Moment-3 (WSM3) microphysics scheme in combination with G3D cumulus physics scheme. The cumulus physics and microphysics parameterization schemes influence the cyclone track prediction skill.

Multi-scale modeling of the urban meteorology: Integration of a new canopy model in the WRF model

Urban parametrizations have been recently developed and integrated in mesoscale meteorological models for a better reproduction of urban heat islands and to compute building energy consumption. The objective of the present study is to evaluate the value of the use of a module able to produce highly resolved vertical profiles of these variables. For this purpose, the Canopy Interface Model (CIM) was integrated as an additional urban physics option in the Weather Research and Forecasting model. The coupling method is here detailed and its evaluation is done using a reference run based on a fine resolution WRF simulation. In order to keep both the CIM and the mesoscale model coherent, an additional term is added to the calculation of the CIM. Finally, the BUBBLE dataset is used to validate the simulation of the profiles from CIM. It is demonstrated that the proposed coupling improves the simulations of the variables in an urban grid and that the WRF + CIM + BEP-BEM system can provide highly resolved vertical profiles while at the same time improving significantly computational time. The data from these preliminary results are very promising as it provides the foundation for the CIM to act as an interface between mesoscale and microscale models.

WRF 모형의 집중호우사상 시공간적 패턴 재현 능력 평가

본 연구는 대기 프로세스의 비정상성의 효과를 반영할 수 있는 물리적 기반의 지역 기후 모델을 이용하는 새로운 방법을 제시하기 위한 기반연구이다. 이를 위해 WRF를 이용하여 과거 호우사상을 재현하였고 모의능력을 평가하였다. 모형의 초기조건 및 경계조건을 설정하기 위해서 NCEP의 재분석 자료와 해수면 온도 자료, 지상관측 자료가 사용되었다. 미세물리 과정과 적운 모수화 과정을 변경해 가며 총 9개의 수치 실험이 실시되었다. 수치모의 결과는 강수량이 초기조건 및 경계조건과 적운 모수화에 영향을 받는 것으로 나타났다. 물리 옵션 중에서 WRF single-Moment 6-class 방안과 New Kain-Fritsch 방안은 강우의 공간적인 분포는 합리적으로 재현하였지만, 총 발생강수량이 과대 산정되었으며, 시간적인 분포는 재현하지 못했다. 이는 방재분야에 WRF를 적용하기 위해서는 새로운 방법론이 필요하다는 것을 나타낸다. This paper presented a base study for new methodology that uses a physical based regional climate model that can also incorporate the effect of the nonstationarity of atmospheric process. To this end, we examined the capability of the WRF in reproducing the selected historical heavy rainfall events over Korea. WRF used the NCEP FNL reanalysis data, RTG Sea Surface Temperature data and ADP Global Surface Observational Weather data for its initial and boundary conditions. Nine experiments are carried out by changing the physics option (microphysics processes and cumulus parameterization process). Numerical simulation results showed a big variation in rainfall according to initial and boundary condition and cumulus parameterization. In physics option, WRF single-Moment 6-class scheme and New Kain-Fritsch scheme were reasonably reproduced in spatial distribution of rainfall, but the amount was overestimated and dose not reproduce temporal distribution of rainfall. This indicates that a new methodology necessary to WRF for hazard mitigation.

Evaluation of Parameterization Schemes in the WRF Model for Estimation of Mixing Height

This paper deals with the evaluation of parameterization schemes in the WRF model for estimation of mixing height. Numerical experiments were performed using various combinations of parameterization schemes and the results were compared with the mixing height estimated using the radiosonde observations taken by the India Meteorological Department (IMD) at Mangalore site for selected days of the warm and cold season in the years 2004–2007. The results indicate that there is a large variation in the mixing heights estimated by the model using various combinations of parameterization schemes. It was seen that the physics option consisting of Mellor Yamada Janjic (Eta) as the PBL scheme, Monin Obukhov Janjic (Eta) as the surface layer scheme, and Noah land surface model performs reasonably well in reproducing the observed mixing height at this site for both the seasons as compared to the other combinations tested. This study also showed that the choice of the land surface model can have a significant impact on the simulation of mixing height by a prognostic model.

Impact of initial and boundary conditions on regional winter climate over the Western Himalayas: A fixed domain size experiment

The Western Himalayas during winter receives precipitation due to the eastward moving low pressure synoptic weather systems, called Western Disturbances (WDs) in Indian meteorological parlance. The complex Himalayan topography, sparse observational data, less understanding of physical processes, etc. form many interesting research questions over this region. One of the important research goals is to study the change in the winter (Dec., Jan. and Feb. — DJF) climate over the Himalayas. In the presented study with modelling efforts having varying initial and boundary conditions (ICBC) with same model physics option is attempted to provide a comment on important physical processes pertaining to precipitation and temperature fields. A 22year (1980–2001) simulation with Regional Climate Model version 3 (RegCM3) forced with National Centre for Environmental Prediction/National Centre for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) reanalysis 1 (NNRP1), NCEP/NCAR reanalysis 2 (NNRP2) and European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecast 40Year reanalysis (ERA40) as three different ICBC is carried out. The present study focuses on the winter climatology of the main meteorological parameters viz., temperature, precipitation and snow depth and interannual variability of winter seasonal precipitation. The model shows overestimation of seasonal average precipitation and underestimation of seasonal average temperature fields over the Western Himalayas in all the three model simulations. The interannual variability of precipitation and temperature over this region is nicely captured by the model. The model simulation with NNRP2 as the ICBC shows more realistic results. In addition the ensemble mean of the three simulations has shown improved results and is closer to the abovementioned simulation. Precipitation bias explained in terms of the higher vertical integrated moisture flux and transport shows strong convergence zone over and along the southern rim of the Indian Himalayas. The energy balance over the Western Himalayas explains the cause of lower temperature in the model simulation and the cause of lesser convective precipitation and evaporation.

Physics teachers’ perspectives on factors that affect urban physics participation and accessibility

The accessibility of secondary physics in U.S. urban school districts is a complex issue. Many schools do not offer a physics option, and for those that do, access is often restricted by various school policies and priorities that do not promote physics participation for all. To analyze this problem in greater depth, I adopted a qualitative phenomenological methodology to explore urban physics teachers' views on school- and district-based conditions that may marginalize traditionally underrepresented students. Teachers from three large urban districts shared concerns and suggestions regarding administrative commitment, student preparedness for physics, reform initiatives and testing mandates, promoting physics enrollments, and implementing high quality instruction. Data from interviews and focus groups provided contextual insights into ways in which physics study may be improved and encouraged for urban youth. Teachers believed expanding access could be facilitated with differentiated levels of physics, incorporating mathematical applications with multiple representations, educating students and counselors on the ramifications of choosing or not choosing elective sciences, well-designed grant-funded initiatives, and flexibility with prerequisites and science course sequencing. Teachers experienced frustration with standardized testing, lack of curricular autonomy, shifting administrative directives, and top-down reforms that did not incorporate their feedback in the decision-making processes. Data from this study revealed that physics teacher networks, often housed at local universities, have been a key resource for establishing supportive professional communities to share best practices that may influence school-based reforms that promote physics participation in urban schools.

Evaluation of nonlocal and local planetary boundary layer schemes in the WRF model

A realistic reproduction of planetary boundary layer (PBL) structure and its evolution is critical to numerical simulation of regional meteorology and air quality. Conversely, insufficient realism in the simulated physical properties often leads to degraded meteorological and air quality prognostic skills. This study employed the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) to evaluate model performance and to quantify meteorological prediction differences produced by four widely used PBL schemes. Evaluated were two nonlocal PBL schemes, YSU and ACM2, and two local PBL schemes, MYJ and Boulac. The model grid comprised four nested domains at horizontal resolutions of 27 km, 9 km, 3 km and 1 km respectively. Simulated surface variables 2 m temperature and 10 m wind at 1 km resolution were compared to measurements collected in Hong Kong. A detailed analysis of land‐atmosphere energy balance explicates heat flux and temperature variability among the PBL schemes. Differences in vertical profiles of horizontal velocity, potential temperature, bulk Richardson number and water vapor mixing ratio were examined. Diagnosed PBL heights, estimated by scheme specific formulations, exhibited the large intrascheme variance. To eliminate formulation dependence in PBL height estimation, lidar measurements and a unified diagnosis were jointly used to reanalyze PBL heights. The diagnosis showed that local PBL schemes produced shallower PBL heights than those of nonlocal PBL schemes. It is reasonable to infer that WRF, coupled with the ACM2 PBL physics option can be a viable producer of meteorological forcing to regional air quality modeling in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) Region.

Evaluating the performance of a WRF physics ensemble over South-East Australia

When using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) modelling system it is necessary to choose between many parametrisations for each physics option. This study examines the performance of various physics scheme combinations on the simulation of a series of rainfall events near the south-east coast of Australia known as East Coast Lows. A thirty-six member multi-physics ensemble was created such that each member had a unique set of physics parametrisations. No single ensemble member was found to perform best for all events, variables and metrics. This is reflected in the fact that different climate variables are found to be sensitive to different physical parametrisations. While a standardised super-metric can be used to identify best performers, a step-wise decision approach described here, allows explicit recognition of the “robustness” of choosing one parameterisation over another, allowing the identification of a group of “equally robustly” performing physics combinations. These results suggest that the Mellor-Yamada-Janjic planetary boundary layer scheme and the Betts-Miller-Janjic cumulus scheme can be chosen with some robustness. Possibly with greater confidence, the results also suggest that the Yonsei University planetary boundary layer scheme, Kain-Fritsch cumulus scheme and RRTMG radiation scheme should not be used in combination in this region. Results further indicate that the selection of physics scheme options has larger impact on model performance during the more intensive rainfall events.

MO‐EE‐A2‐01: Nuclear Model Evaluation of Uncertainties in Therapeutic Absorbed Dose and Secondary Neutron Production in Proton Radiotherapy Using MCNPX

Purpose: To evaluate differences in nuclear physics models of MCNPX for uncertainties in 1) the dosimetric characteristics of the therapeutic dose for SOBP and cross‐field profiles and 2) stray neutron fields produced in a proton therapy unit using the default Bertini model option as the baseline. Methods and Materials: The general purpose Monte Carlo N‐Particle eXtended (MCNPX) code was used to calculate the therapeutic absorbed dose and spectral neutron fluence with three nuclear model options: the Bertini Model, the Cascade Exciton Model (CEM), and the Liège Intra‐Nuclear Cascade Model (INCL4). Each model is included as a physics option in MCNPX. For initial beam energy of 160 MeV, dose calculations were carried out in a water phantom positioned 24 cm downstream of the nozzle exit while in‐air calculations of the neutron spectral fluence were tallied in spheres positioned at isocenter, 100 cm downstream of isocenter and at lateral distances of ± 100 cm off‐axis. Calculations of secondary neutrons produced external to the nozzle housing were evaluated among the models for several parameters including the ambient neutron dose equivalent per therapeutic absorbed dose. Results: Our results indicate that calculations of the therapeutic absorbed dose were in close agreement (⩽1% difference) for all nuclear model options. On the other hand, the differences in the neutron spectral fluence calculations typically varied by a factor of 2 or more among the models. Conclusions: We found that all three inelastic nuclear interaction models provided excellent agreement in the therapeutic dose distributions. However, we observed substantial differences in the neutron spectral fluence calculations that suggest further investigation may be desirable for estimating the out of field radiation exposure uncertainties among the models.

Issues of equity in physics access and enrollment in New York City public high schools

Despite reports to the contrary, the availability of physics as a course for high school students is not equitably distributed throughout the U.S. While some schools provide physics for all, a more common scenario is limited availability, often open only to the relatively few students who have completed the necessary prerequisites or are deemed capable of understanding physics. Some schools do not offer physics at all. This is particularly true in urban districts, where science resources and instruction are chronically inadequate. This study looks at the access to and availability of physics courses for high school students in New York City. The schools were surveyed to determine where physics was offered and how many students were enrolled in the course. Statistics were performed to compare differences between schools that offered physics and those that did not. Additionally, factors were examined that relate to physics availability, such as the magnet school configuration, the AP Physics option, science curricular sequence, and the conceptual physics option. Overall, it was determined that physics availability is very limited in NYC schools, a serious inequity that disproportionately affects students of color and poor children. Strategies for improving access and enrollment will be discussed.

The training of industrial physicists in Zimbabwe: a success story

In 1992–93 the Department of Physics decided that there was a need for physicists to participate in the industrial development in Zimbabwe. The idea of a Master of Science in Applied Physics programme was conceived. Before designing the programme, a postal survey was conducted to discover the needs of industry particularly in relation to industrial processes. There was a 20% response to our survey with many indicating the area of specialisation required in Zimbabwe. Based on their response, the programme was drawn up and was launched in 1994. The programme has optional specialisations in Industrial Physics, Medical Physics, Laser and Plasma Physics and Environmental Physics. Most of the candidates choose the Industrial Physics option. The programme includes courses in Workshop Practice, Computer Applications Software, Theory of Devices, Computer Interfacing, Instrumentation Physics, Metrology (which includes Quality Control), Digital Signal Processing and Data Communications and Networks, Industrial Applications of Laser and Plasma Physics, Biomedical Instrumentation, and many others. Nearly 30 Zimbabweans and some foreign students have thus far graduated with this degree. On graduation, they have, with relative ease, found employment in industry. In two cases, graduates were appointed as Research Officers with firms who set up research divisions specially for them. Many are now teaching at universities and technical colleges throughout the country where they continue to promote an industrial approach to the teaching of physics.

Physics goes practical

A new applied physics program at California State University San Bernardino is described. The applied program incorporates many aspects that may be of interest to others. For example, a required course in introductory electronics is offered at the freshman level. This program is not a “watered down” version of the traditional B.S. degree. We also stress that this applied physics option was not created by a few minor curriculum changes with the name “applied physics option” attached; it represents a major commitment by the department to offer a viable and marketable alternative to the traditional physics major. We believe that a balance must be struck by providing the type of liberal arts education that will sustain students throughout their careers and enrich their lives on the one hand, while offering specific skills that will help them land that all important first position on the other hand.

Introduction of solar energy devices to secondary schools as teaching aids

This paper describes the construction and operation of scaled-down or simplified solar energy devices that can be used in secondary schools which offer the Environmental Physics option at the Advanced Level of the University of Cambridge General Certificate of Education Examination. This type of activity will sensitise students to the virtues and viability of solar energy conversion as an environmentally sound practice as well as assist them in understanding the fundamental scientific principles involved in harnessing solar energy. Students have built and tested cost-effective versions of a wire basket solar crop dryer, a cabinet-type solar crop dryer, a solar water heater, a solar still and a solar box cooker. These devices were built as final year projects for the BSc degree of the University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad or as part of the 2020 Project for secondary school students organised by the Ministry of Education, Barbados, UNESCO and the University of the West Indies, Cave Hill. The introduction of this technology at the secondary school level will also be reinforced by mounting workshops for secondary school teachers who can also enrol in the short courses or the Diploma or MSc programmes in renewable energy being developed by the University of the West Indies. Teachers will then be fully equipped to transfer this technology to their students.

Physics in further education colleges

I should like to add some further comments to the correspondence on the role of physics in colleges of further education. The number of students specializing in physics, either at HNC level or in the elective physics option in the ONC sciences, remains disproportionately small compared to those taking, say, the National Certificate in engineering.