Physical Aggressive Expression Research Articles

The expression of driving anger in a sample of Italian drivers

This study examined the factor structure and the psychometric properties of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) in a large sample of Italian drivers. After removing several items and allowing six error pairs to correlate, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (n = 1007) supported a four-factor solution that broadly confirmed the four original factors, and this was confirmed in a second group (N = 1047) of drivers. The three aggressive factors (physical aggressive expression, use of a vehicle and verbal aggressive expression) were positively related, while the adaptive/constructive subscale was negatively related to measures of trait anger and aggressive driving. In addition, younger drivers reported engaging in the aggressive forms of expression more frequently, while older drivers reported more frequently engaging in the adaptive/constructive form of expression. Finally, those who had crashed in the past three years reported more frequently engaging in the three aggressive forms of expression, while those that had not crashed reported more frequently engaging in the adaptive/constructive form of expression. Although the DAX factors showed moderate correlations with social desirability, the associations between the different forms of driving anger expression, aggressive driving and crash involvement remained significant when controlling for socially desirable responding.

Anger Expressions of Bus Drivers and Passengers during Conflicts on the Bus

Conflicts often occur between bus drivers and passengers or among passengers, leading to dangerous situations while driving. However, tools to explore drivers’ and passengers’ forms of anger expression are lacking. This paper describes the development of a bus passenger anger expression inventory (BPAX) and a bus driver anger expression inventory (BDAX) based on a 402 passenger sample and a 414 driver sample. Exploratory principal component analysis revealed five factors in the BPAX: verbal aggressive expression, verbal positive expression, personal physical aggressive expression, adaptive/constructive expression, and displaced aggression. Similarly, six factors were identified in the BDAX: verbal positive expression, use of the vehicle to express anger, verbal aggressive expression, adaptive/constructive expression, personal physical aggressive expression, and displaced aggression. Overall, gender showed a difference only in aggressive expressions of passenger anger, not in drivers’ anger expressions. Older, less educated, and lower-income passengers preferred to express anger aggressively and rarely relieved conflicts in a positive verbal way. For driver groups, differences in age, anger level, and city grade were reflected in their forms of anger expression. The results of this paper are significant for strengthening driver safety training, improving safety facilities in buses, enhancing passenger education on civilized riding, and perfecting laws and regulations.

Anger expression among Danish cyclists and drivers: A comparison based on mode specific anger expression inventories

Based on the short form of the driving anger expression inventory (DAX-short, 15-item), the present study developed an adapted version of the DAX for cyclists (CAX, 14 items). The data basis was an online survey of 2000 inhabitants of Denmark. A principle component analysis on the translated DAX-short confirmed the 4-factor solution of the original study differentiating between (1) personal physical aggressive expression, (2) use of a vehicle to express anger, (3) verbal aggressive expression and (4) adaptive/constructive expression. In case of cycling, the factor “use of a vehicle to express anger“ only included one item and was left out. Based on the results, reliable subscales were developed. Drivers scored higher in verbal aggressive expression than cyclists, while there was no significant difference in constructive expression. The subscales for drivers and cyclists showed significant relations to age, gender, self-reported aggressive behaviours and traffic fines: Women scored for instance lower in physical expression, while older people scored higher in constructive expression. The effect of age and gender on anger expression among drivers and cyclists remained significant when controlling for exposure and other factors in linear regression analyses. These analyses also showed a relationship between a positive attitude towards driving and higher levels of anger expression among drivers, while this was not the case for cyclists.

Gender roles, sex and the expression of driving anger

The present study investigated the validity of the 25-item Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) as well as the role of sex and gender-roles in relation to the expression of driving anger in a sample of 378 French drivers (males=38%, M=32.9years old). Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the four-factor structure of the 25-item DAX (Adaptive/Constructive Expression; Use of the Vehicle to Express Anger; Verbal Aggressive Expression and Personal Physical Aggressive Expression) and two of the three aggressive factors were found to have significant positive relationships with driving anger, while adaptive/constructive expression was negatively related to driving anger. Use of the vehicle to express anger was not significantly related to crash involvement, but was significantly related to all other crash-related conditions (traffic tickets, loss of concentration, loss of control of the vehicle, near crash). The presence of feminine traits, but not sex, was predictive of adaptive/constructive behaviours, while masculine traits predicted more frequent verbal aggressive expression, use of the vehicle to express anger, personal physical aggressive expression and total aggressive expression. This finding may account for the inconsistent relationship found between driving anger and sex in previous research. This research also found that the 25-item DAX is a valid tool to measure the expression of driving anger and that the endorsement of masculine traits are related to more aggressive forms of driving anger expression.

DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIALIZATION OF PHYSICAL AGGRESSION IN VERY YOUNG BOYS

The expression of physical aggression is normative in early child development; it peaks in the second year of life, with steep declines for most children by the third and fourth years as children learn alternatives to aggression. Some children, however, fail to demonstrate declines in aggressive acts, and many of these are boys. The current review uses a dynamic systems (DS) approach to identify early individual and contextual factors that may dynamically influence trajectories of aggression as a characteristic way of engaging within communities and relationships. Within the DS framework, we focus on the parent-infant relationship as central to the development of adaptive emotion-regulation capacities of the infant and young child. Biological sex differences that may influence this early relationship are highlighted, as is the influence of contextual processes such as family violence. Clinical implications suggested by both the empirical and theoretical literatures are then described.

Gender Roles and the Expression of Driving Anger Among Ukrainian Drivers.

The current study investigated the validity of the revised (25-item) version of the driving anger expression inventory (DAX) on a novel sample of 385 drivers from Ukraine. The roles of sex and gender in relation to self-reported aggressive tendencies were also examined. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the four-factor structure of the DAX (adaptive/constructive expression; use of the vehicle to express anger; verbal aggressive expression; and personal physical aggressive expression), and the three aggressive factors were found to have positive relationships with trait anger and driving anger, while adaptive/constructive expression was negatively related to trait and driving anger. Drivers who reported recent near-misses or loss of concentration scored higher on verbal aggressive expression. Those who had recently received a traffic ticket also reported higher levels of all three types of aggressive anger expression. Further, the presence of feminine traits, but not sex, predicted more adaptive/constructive behaviors and lower scores for verbal aggressive expression, personal physical aggressive expression, and total aggressive expression. However, masculine traits did not predict any of these factors. This research concludes that the revised DAX is a valid tool to measure the expression of driving anger and that the endorsement of feminine traits is related to less aggressive expression of driving anger.

Anger, aggression and road rage behaviour in Malaysian drivers

This study tested the four factor structure of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) in a sample of young Malaysian drivers and the relationship these factors had with several other variables. Confirmatory Factor Analysis broadly supported the four factor solution of the DAX, being: Personal Physical Aggressive Expression, Use of a Vehicle to Express Anger, Verbal Aggressive Expression and Adaptive/Constructive expression. The short version of the Driving Anger Scale was positively correlated with the three types of aggressive responses and not surprisingly with a variable comprised of all three types of aggressive responses (Total Aggressive Expression). Total Aggressive Expression was higher for males and negatively related to age, years licensed and slower preferred driving speed. All three of the aggressive forms of expression had significant relationships with crash-related conditions, such as: loss of concentration, losing control of their vehicle, having received a ticket and involvement in near-misses. In particular, all three of the aggressive forms of expression had significant relationships with losing control of the vehicle and Total Aggressive Expression was correlated with all crash-related conditions. In addition, Personal Physical Aggressive Expression and Total Aggressive Expression were both significantly related to crash involvement.

The expression of anger on the road

This research used the Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) to investigate the expression of driving anger amongst a sample of New Zealand drivers. Confirmatory Factor Analysis found that the data fitted a three factor solution, which consisted of: Verbal Aggressive Expression; Use of a Vehicle to express anger, and an Adaptive/Constructive factor. The Personal Physical Aggressive Expression factor was not supported in the present sample. However, in line with previous findings, the present research found that the two aggressive types of anger expression were significantly related to potentially crash related conditions, such as: losing control of the vehicle, loss of concentration and near-misses. The two aggressive types of driving anger were also positively related to trait anger and driving anger, while the Adaptive/Constructive factor was negatively related to both these variables. The present study also confirmed that those drivers who expressed their anger in an aggressive manner are more likely to be male and younger, while those who deal with their anger in a constructive manner were more likely to be older and female.

Development of a short form of the driving anger expression inventory

The present study developed a revised version of the driving anger expression inventory (25-items) and a short (15-item) version using data from 551 drivers. Split half factor analyses on both versions confirmed the original four factors; personal physical aggressive expression, use of a vehicle to express anger, verbal aggressive expression and adaptive/constructive expression. The two DAX versions were strongly correlated, demonstrating the suitability of both forms of the scale and the aggressive forms of expression were higher for drivers who reported initiating road rage interactions. Total aggressive expression was also higher for drivers who reported recent crash-related conditions, such as: loss of concentration, losing control of their vehicle, moving violations, near-misses and major crashes. The revised DAX and DAX-short provide shorter versions of the 49-item DAX that can more easily be combined with other questionnaires and require smaller sample sizes to analyse. Further research is required to validate these tools among different samples and populations.

The expression of anger amongst Turkish taxi drivers

The present study tested the four factor structure of the DAX on a sample of Turkish taxi drivers and the relationship these factors had with a number of other variables. Confirmatory Factor Analysis found that the data broadly fit the four factor solution of the DAX. These factors included three aggressive expressions: Verbal Aggressive Expression; Personal Physical Aggressive Expression; Use of a Vehicle to Express anger, and one Adaptive/Constructive factor. Driving experience was negatively related to the three types of aggressive expression. The Total Aggressive Expression was positively related to annual mileage and preferred driving speed, but negatively related to age and experience. The present research also found that the three aggressive types of anger expression were significantly related to potentially crash related conditions, such as losing control of the vehicle, loss of concentration and near-misses. However, none of the DAX factors was significantly related to either minor or major crashes.

Aggressive driving in Romania: Psychometric properties of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory

The present research verified the psychometric properties of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX; Deffenbacher, Lynch, Oetting, & Swaim, 2002) on a Romanian sample (n = 262). Exploratory factor analysis revealed a three-factor structure: Verbal and Physical Aggressive Expression (α = .86), Adaptive/Constructive Expression (α = .88) and Using the Vehicle for Aggressive Expression (α = .83). The aggressive forms of expressing anger were summed up in the Total Driving Aggressive Expression Index (α = .90). Confirmatory factor analysis supported the three factors solution, by showing a good fit into a 30 items version of the DAX. All the aggressive forms of anger expression correlated positively with each other and with trait Aggression-Hostility, while the adaptive way of expressing anger correlated negatively with them, thus supporting the convergent validity of the DAX. Age differences were identified, in that younger drivers scored higher in Using the Vehicle for Aggressive Expression scale and in Total Driving Aggressive Expression Index, while older drivers scored higher in Adaptive/Constructive Expression scale. Several directions for future research concerning the DAX are suggested. Overall, our results showed that the Romanian version of the DAX is a valid tool for assessing aggressive driving.

Psychometric adaptation of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory in a Spanish sample: Differences by age and gender

► Driving anger trait and its measurement. ► Driving anger expression and its assessment. ► Individual differences by gender and age. The present study examined the psychometric properties of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) ( Deffenbacher, Lynch, Oetting, & Swaim, 2002 ) in a Spanish sample of 432 drivers. Confirmatory factor analysis showed a good fit of five factors: Verbal Aggressive Expression ( α = .91), Personal Physical Aggressive Expression ( α = .79), Use the Vehicle to Express Anger ( α = .82), Displaced Aggression ( α = .78), and Adaptative/Constructive Expression ( α = .81). Direct aggressive forms of expressing anger were summed into Direct Aggressive Expression Index ( α = .89), so DAX resulted in three global indices: Direct Aggressive Expression Index, Displaced Aggression, and Adaptative/Constructive Expression. All the aggressive forms correlated positively with each other and with driving anger trait, and negatively with the adaptative way of expressing anger, which support the concurrent validity of the questionnaire. There was no significant interaction effect between age and gender in the way of expressing anger nor a significant effect by gender. However, younger drivers scored higher than older in all the aggressive ways of expressing anger: Verbal Aggressive Expression ( η 2 = .08), Physical Aggressive Expression ( η 2 = .05), Use the Vehicle to Express Anger ( η 2 = .06), Displaced Aggression ( η 2 = .05), and the Direct Aggressive Expression Index ( η 2 = .09).

Sensational interests, sustaining fantasies and personality predict physical aggression

An interest in sensational topics is commonly linked with violent offending, as are revenge fantasies and low Agreeableness (A). These constructs were assessed in 280 participants from the general population who provided self report data regarding interests in sensational topics, sustaining fantasies, general personality traits, and self-reported physical aggression. The Sustaining Fantasies Questionnaire’s 10 subscales were reduced to positive, negative and narcissistic dimensions of sustaining fantasy. Structural equation modelling found that lower levels of A was the strongest predictor of physical aggression, with additional independent predictors of physical aggression being an interest in sensationalist militaristic topics and using narcissistic sustaining fantasies for self-consolation. The assumption that interests in aggressive and violent or bizarre topics necessarily leads to the expression of physical aggression is challenged, as interests in isolation from personality do not predict aggression. The prediction of aggression requires a thorough assessment of personality and individual cognitions rather than superficial recreational choices.

Further Evidence of Reliability and Validity for the Driving Anger Expression Inventory

This study provided evidence of reliability and validity for the four scales of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory. Alpha reliabilities for scales ranged from .84 to .89. Measures of aggressive anger expression while driving (Verbal Aggressive Expression, Personal Physical Aggressive Expression, and Use of the Vehicle to Express Anger scales) correlated positively with each other and negatively with the Adaptive/Constructive Expression scale. Scores on the three aggressive forms of anger expression correlated positively with trait anger and measures of driving-related anger, aggression, and risky behavior, whereas scores on the Adaptive/Constructive Expression scale correlated negatively with these variables. Reports of aggressive and risky behavior correlated most strongly with the Use of the Vehicle to Express Anger scale. Forms of anger expression were minimally or uncorrelated with rated trait anxiety and reports of moving violations, close calls, and accidents. Findings replicated earlier findings and provided further evidence for the reliability and validity of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory.

EVidence for dorsolateral and orbital prefrontal cortical involvement in the expression of aggressive behavior

Numerous studies have implicated the role of the prefrontal cortex in the expression of aggressive behavior, However, the nature of this relationship remains poorly understood. As such, the purpose of this article is to review both the animal and human literature pertaining to prefrontal cortical functioning and aggression in an attempt to help clarify this relationship. Particular attention is paid to differentiating the functions of the dorsolateral and the orbital regions of the prefrontal cortex in the expression of aggression. Evidence was garnered from four different types of studies: 1) those examining aggressive behavior in animals following ablations to the prefrontal cortex; 2) those examining aggressive behavior in humans following surgical and accidental lesions to the prefrontal cortex; 3) those examining prefrontal cortical functioning in individuals with psychiatric disorders characterized by aggression; and 4) those relating prefrontal cortical functioning to human aggressive behavior in laboratory situations. The general conclusion of this article is that the dorsolateral region of the prefrontal cortex is more likely to be involved in the expression of physical aggression whereas the orbital region is more likely to be involved in the expression of what is termed herein 'disinhibited-nonaggressive' behavior.

Cognitive and neuropsychological characteristics of physically aggressive boys.

Cognitive-neuropsychological tests were given to adolescent boys (N = 177) to investigate processes associated with physical aggression. Factor analysis yielded 4 factors representing verbal learning, incidental spatial learning, tactile-lateral ability, and executive functions. Physical aggression was assessed at ages 6, 10, 11, and 12, and 3 groups were created: stable aggressive, unstable aggressive, and nonaggressive. The authors found main effects for only the executive functions factor even when other factors were used as additional covariates in a step-down analysis; nonaggressive boys performed better than stable and unstable aggressive boys. The covariates family adversity and anxiety were both related only to the verbal learning factor. This study highlights the importance of deficits in executive function in the expression of physical aggression relative to other cognitive-neuropsychological functions.

Cognitive models of criminal violence based upon intelligence and psychopathy levels.

Examined specific models of violence relating to psychopathic status by considering additional cognitive factors that might relate to intelligence and to the expression of physical aggression. 168 male prisoners (mean age 32.96 yrs) served as Ss. Three cognitive psychopathic models were suggested by the data: (1) An impaired-processing psychopathic model of violent crime, involving low-IQ psychopaths, would explain the highest risk factor for violence by a combination of poor impulse control and low empathy and the lack of inhibitions against physical aggression associated with poor socialization. (2) A sadistic, effective-processing psychopathic model of violence was suggested by the higher empathy and better impulse control of the high-IQ psychopath. It was proposed that empathy promoted sadistic reinforcement by enhancing the psychopath's awareness of the victim's pain and distress. (3) A defensive, impaired-processing, nonpsychopathic model of violence was proposed for the low-IQ nonpsychopaths: Effective self-reinforcement coupled with poor impulse control and low empathy placed them in hazardous situations that exceeded their cognitive skills. (61 ref)

Cognitive models of criminal violence based upon intelligence and psychopathy levels.

Examined specific models of violence relating to psychopathic status by considering additional cognitive factors that might relate to intelligence and to the expression of physical aggression. 168 male prisoners (mean age 32.96 yrs) served as Ss. Three cognitive psychopathic models were suggested by the data: (1) An impaired-processing psychopathic model of violent crime, involving low-IQ psychopaths, would explain the highest risk factor for violence by a combination of poor impulse control and low empathy and the lack of inhibitions against physical aggression associated with poor socialization. (2) A sadistic, effective-processing psychopathic model of violence was suggested by the higher empathy and better impulse control of the high-IQ psychopath. It was proposed that empathy promoted sadistic reinforcement by enhancing the psychopath's awareness of the victim's pain and distress. (3) A defensive, impaired-processing, nonpsychopathic model of violence was proposed for the low-IQ nonpsychopaths: Effective self-reinforcement coupled with poor impulse control and low empathy placed them in hazardous situations that exceeded their cognitive skills. (61 ref)

The effects of alcohol and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on human physical aggression

Forty male undergraduates were provoked following their ingestion of high or low doses of either alcohol or delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The expression of physical aggression was related to the quantity of alcohol ingested. The high dose of alcohol instigated more intense aggression than the low dose. The high dose of THC, on the other hand, did not increase aggressive behavior. In fact, it tended to produce a weak suppression effect.

Effects of type and dose of alcohol on human physical aggression.

Forty male undergraduates over 21 years of age were provoked following their ingestion of either 1.5 ounces (.045 1) or .5 ounces (.015 1) of 100 proof bourbon or vodka per 40 (18 kg) of body weight. The expression of physical aggression was related to the quantity of alcohol ingested. The high dose of alcohol appeared to instigate and the low dose of alcohol appeared to inhibit aggressive responding. This effect was most pronounced in the vodka conditions. Interpersonal judgments were also influenced by the type and dose of alcohol consumed.