Photothermal Infrared Radiometry Research Articles

Measurement of thermal transport properties of selected superlattice and thin films using frequency-domain photothermal infrared radiometry

Thermal transport properties in multi-layered semiconductor samples are reported using modulated photothermal infrared radiometry (PTR). The cross-plane thermal conductivity and diffusivity of thin AlxGa(1-x)As layers and AlAs/GaAs superlattices were determined by fitting solutions of the heat equation for multi-layered systems to PTR data. The thermal conductivity of an AlxGa(1-x)As film with x = 0.5 was found to be lower than an AlxGa(1-x)As film with x = 0.33 which is expected as scattering from alloy disorder is maximized for x = 0.5. In addition, it was found that thermal conductivities of AlAs/GaAs superlattices decrease when the superlattice period is decreased for a constant total thickness which is expected since the number of AlAs/GaAs interfaces (which impede thermal transport) increases as the period decreases. The maximum PTR amplitude signal was found to occur when the diffusion length of the thermal wave is on other order of the thickness of the semiconductor layer. The accuracy and applicability of photothermal infrared radiometry to the study of semiconductor multilayer structures are further discussed in the paper.

On Investigations of the Optical Absorption Coefficient of Gold and Germanium Implanted Silicon with the Use of the Non-destructive Contactless Photo Thermal Infrared Radiometry

In this paper results of investigations of Au2+ and Ge+ ion-implanted silicon samples with the use of the nondestructive frequency and the space domain photo thermal infrared radiometry (PTR) method are presented. Frequency amplitude characteristics and spatial amplitude distributions of the PTR signal for the implanted silicon samples were measured and analyzed. Measurements have been performed for several wavelengths of the exciting light. The dependence of the amplitude of the PTR signal on the optical and recombination parameters of the implanted layers has been analyzed experimentally and theoretically and discussed. The objective of this work is to present the possibilities of investigations of the influence of the high energy and high dose implantation process into silicon on the optical and recombination parameters of implanted silicon with the use of the frequency and spatial domain PTR method. Observed changes in the measured signal have been explained by simultaneous changes of values of the optical absorption coefficient and carriers lifetime of implanted layers.

Simple method for the determination of the effective infrared absorption coefficient of semiconductor wafer using modulated photothermal infrared radiometry

A simple method for the estimation the infrared absorption coefficient of semiconductor wafers is proposed which is based on the photothermal infrared radiometry (PTR) measurement technique. Applying the method on Si and GaAs wafers which have been studied recently it is shown that information about the infrared absorption coefficient can be deduced from the slope of the PTR amplitudes. The obtained results are in a good agreement with values obtained using computational method reported recently.

Simultaneous measurement of infrared absorption coefficient of Carbon doped Al0.33Ga0.67As thin film and thermal boundary resistance between thin film and heavily Zn doped GaAs substrate using spectrally-resolved modulated photothermal infrared radiometry

In this paper, we investigated C doped Al0.33Ga0.67As thin film epitaxially grown on a Zn-doped GaAs substrate using spectrally resolved modulated photothermal infrared radiometry (SR-PTR). We assumed that thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the thin layer are known and estimate values of the infrared absorption coefficient of the thin layer and the thermal boundary resistance of the interface between the thin layer and the substrate. We found out that the thermal boundary resistance is two orders of magnitude greater than thermal boundary resistance of studied recently undoped AlGaAs/GaAs sample. We attribute this effect to formation of quasi 2-dimensional hole gas due to modulation doping. Finally, the infrared absorption coefficient of the thin layer decreases with increasing wavelength due to inter-valence band absorption. We found out that with increasing infrared absorption coefficient of the thin film, the sensitivity of the method for estimation of the infrared absorption coefficient increases, while the estimation error decreases.

Erratum: “On the infrared absorption coefficient measurement of thick heavily Zn doped GaAs using spectrally resolved modulated photothermal infrared radiometry” [J. Appl. Phys. 122, 135109 (2017)

Erratum: “On the infrared absorption coefficient measurement of thick heavily Zn doped GaAs using spectrally resolved modulated photothermal infrared radiometry” [J. Appl. Phys. <b>122</b>, 135109 (2017)

Investigation of Thermal Properties of High-Density Polyethylene/Aluminum Nanocomposites by Photothermal Infrared Radiometry

In this study, thermal properties of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) filled with nanosized Al particles (80 nm) were investigated. Samples were prepared using melt mixing method up to filler volume fraction of 29 %, followed by compression molding. By using modulated photothermal radiometry (PTR) technique, thermal diffusivity and thermal effusivity were obtained. The effective thermal conductivity of nanocomposites was calculated directly from PTR measurements and from the measurements of density, specific heat capacity (by differential scanning calorimetry) and thermal diffusivity (obtained from PTR signal amplitude and phase). It is concluded that the thermal conductivity of HDPE composites increases with increasing Al fraction and the highest effective thermal conductivity enhancement of 205 % is achieved at a filler volume fraction of 29 %. The obtained results were compared with the theoretical models and experimental data given in the literature. The results demonstrate that Agari and Uno, and Cheng and Vachon models can predict well the thermal conductivity of HDPE/Al nanocomposites in the whole range of Al fractions.

On the infrared absorption coefficient measurement of thick heavily Zn doped GaAs using spectrally resolved modulated photothermal infrared radiometry

In this paper, we report on measurements of the infrared absorption coefficient in the mid-infrared range of a heavily Zn-doped GaAs wafer using spectrally resolved modulated photothermal infrared radiometry (PTR). The method allows us to measure the infrared absorption coefficient of (i) much thicker samples as compared to the one used in Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy in transmission configuration and (ii) with non-mirror-like surfaces as would be required for measurements in the reflection configuration. From the best fits of the theoretical model to the PTR results, the values of the infrared absorption coefficient and thermal diffusivity of GaAs wafer are obtained. These values of infrared absorption coefficients are compared both with the literature values on very thin, similarly doped GaAs:Be sample and with infrared absorption coefficients calculated from FTIR specular reflectance measurements on the same sample. FTIR reflectance measurements demand additional assumptions for the evaluation of absorption coefficient and mirror-like surfaces. The results obtained from both experimental methods yield the same order of the infrared absorption coefficients. It is observed that the infrared absorption coefficient decreases with increasing wavelength because of inter-valence band transitions. However, only the infrared spectrum estimated using PTR exhibits free carrier absorption effect at a shorter wavelength as observed in previous works on very thin Be-doped GaAs samples. It is worth mentioning that the presented method is not limited to semiconductors, but can be used for other highly infrared absorbing samples. In addition, the spectrally resolved PTR measurements simultaneously provide the same values of thermal diffusivity of the GaAs wafer within estimation uncertainties thus demonstrating the reliability of the PTR method in the measurement of thermal diffusivity of such samples.

On measurement of the thermal diffusivity of moderate and heavily doped semiconductor samples using modulated photothermal infrared radiometry

In this work, the accuracy of the thermal diffusivity estimation in moderately and heavily doped semiconductor samples using the modulated photothermal infrared radiometry is investigated. The studies were carried out on heavily doped Si and GaAs wafers, and on moderately doped Si and recently studied GaAs and CdSe samples. It is shown, that depending on the infrared properties of the semiconductor sample, the modulated photothermal infrared radiometry signal can yield information about thermal diffusivity, (effective) infrared absorption coefficient and electronic transport parameters (recombination lifetime, carrier diffusivity and surface recombination velocities). For the heavily doped samples, the modulated photothermal infrared radiometry signal consists only of the thermal response yielding information about the (effective) infrared absorption coefficient and thermal diffusivity. The relative expanded uncertainty with 0.95 level of confidence Ur of estimating the thermal diffusivity in this case is about Ur=0.05. For moderately doped samples the modulated photothermal infrared radiometry signal consists of the thermal and of the photocarrier response. The relative expanded uncertainty with 0.95 level of confidence Ur of estimating the thermal diffusivity in this case varies between about Ur=0.10 and about Ur=0.30, depending on the existence of the maximum in the signal phase, but information about the electronic transport properties is derived. It is shown that not only infrared properties have the influence on the accuracy in estimating the thermal diffusivity of moderate doped semiconductor samples, but also the thermal, geometrical (thickness) and carrier recombination properties can play an important role.

Quantitative thermal wave phase imaging of an IR semi-transparent GaAs wafer using IR lock-in thermography

In this paper, the simultaneous measurement of out-of-plane thermal diffusivity and effective infrared absorption coefficient of an IR semi-transparent GaAs wafer using infrared lock-in thermography technique (LIT) is presented. The method relies on analysis of the generated LIT phase images recorded at different modulation frequencies, using the thermal wave model in the transmission configuration. The out-of-plane thermal diffusivity and effective infrared absorption coefficient are estimated from the best fit of the theoretical model to the experimental data. The obtained values are in good agreement with those obtained by supplementary measurement using the modulated photothermal infrared radiometry technique (PTR) in the reflection mode, and also with data reported in the literature. In addition, simple modification of the LIT experiment set up allows one to determinate the in-plane thermal diffusivity of n-GaAs wafer. It was found that in-plane and out-of-plane thermal diffusivities of the GaAs wafer are very close, as expected, within the limit of measurement errors. The results show that the LIT technique in transmission configuration can provide spatial information about both the (effective) infrared absorption coefficient and thermal diffusivity of semiconductor crystals.

Determination of the carrier concentration in CdSe crystals from the effective infrared absorption coefficient measured by means of the photothermal infrared radiometry

In this paper, a non-contact method that allows to determine the carrier concentration in CdSe crystals is presented. The method relies on the measurement of the effective infrared absorption coefficient by means of the photothermal infrared radiometry (PTR). In order to obtain the effective infrared absorption coefficient and thermal diffusivity, the frequency characteristics of the PTR signal were analyzed in the frame of a one-dimensional heat transport model for infrared semitransparent crystals. The carrier concentrations were estimated using a theory introduced by Ruda and a recently proposed normalization procedure for the PTR signal. The deduced carrier concentrations of the investigated CdSe crystals are in reasonable agreement with those obtained using Hall measurements and infrared spectroscopy. The method presented in this paper can also be applied to other semiconductors with the carrier concentration in the range of 1014–1017 cm−3.

Influence of Rolling on the Thermal Diffusivity of Metal Alloys by Photothermal Infrared Radiometry

The thermal diffusivities of metallic foils subjected to cold-rolling processes have been studied by photothermal radiometry in a thermal transmission and reflection configuration. In this work, measurements were conducted on foils of Al, Cu, and stainless steel (V2A) that were subjected stepwise to cold-rolling process, reducing the sample of around 1 mm, as prepared, to approximately 0.1 mm. It was found that the effect of the cold-rolling is manifested as a relationship between the relative diffusivity and the relative thickness, both with respect to their corresponding initial values. This empirical relationship consists of a linear decrease of the relative diffusivity with the negative of the logarithm of the relative thickness of the sample. Within the approximation of small deformations, this behavior is consistent with linear diminishing of the thermal diffusivity with the degree of rolling. An influence of rolling on both the thermal diffusivity and effusivity was previously observed for a polycrystalline NiTi shape memory alloy with a nearly equi-atomic composition. Due to the thermal-diffusivity behavior of metal alloys due to rolling, a simple microscopic model is proposed to explain this influence upon the effective thermal parameters within the framework of a one-dimensional heat flow perpendicular to the foil surface. The model assumes the reduction of grain sizes and the consequent increase of grain interfaces during rolling as responsible for a larger effective thermal resistance. Numerical results are shown using the available polycrystalline NiTi for both the thermal-diffusivity and thermal-effusivity values.

A linear relationship between the Hall carrier concentration and the effective absorption coefficient measured by means of photothermal radiometry in IR semi-transparent n-type CdMgSe mixed crystals

In this work we demonstrate the ability to measure the effective infrared absorption coefficient in semiconductors by a photothermal infrared radiometry (PTR) experiment, and its correlation with the Hall carrier concentration. The amplitude and phase of the PTR signal were measured for Cd1−xMgxSe mixed crystals, with the magnesium content varying from x = 0 to x = 0.15. The PTR experiments were performed at room temperature in thermal reflection and transmission configurations using a mercury cadmium telluride infrared detector. The PTR data were analyzed in the frame of the one-dimensional heat transport model for infrared semi-transparent crystals. Based on the variation of the normalized PTR phase and amplitude on the modulation frequency, the thermal diffusivity and the effective infrared absorption coefficient were obtained by fitting the theoretical expression to experimental data and compared with the Hall carrier concentration determined by supplementary Hall experiments. A linear relationship between the effective infrared absorption coefficient and the Hall carrier concentration was found which is explained in the frame of the Drude theory. The uncertainty of the measured slope was 6%. The value of the slope depends on (1) the sample IR absorption spectrum and (2) the spectral range of the infrared detector. It has to be pointed out that this method is suitable for use in an industrial environment for a fast and contactless carrier concentration measurement. This method can be used for the characterization of other semiconductors after a calibration procedure is carried out. In addition, the PTR technique yields information on the thermal properties in the same experiment.

Improved methods for measuring thermal parameters of liquid samples using photothermal infrared radiometry

High accuracy, non-contact measuring methods for finding thermal properties of liquid samples using photothermal infrared radiometry (PTR) are presented. The use of transparent windows to confine micro volume liquid samples and the implementation of front and/or back signal detection procedures helped the successful implementation of the PTR technique for measuring liquids with high proficiency. We present two configurations, the so-called back–front photothermal infrared radiometry and back photothermal infrared radiometry to find thermal diffusivity and thermal effusivity of liquid samples. Sensitivity studies and error analyses included prove the robustness of each method. As an illustration of the temperature and electric field varying studies, we have included the experimental results on a 5CB (4-cyano-4′-pentylbiphenyl) liquid crystal.

Monitoring the Migration of Liquid by Photothermal Infrared Radiometry (IR‐PTR): Feasibility Studies of Drying and Emulsion Instability in Selected Food Commodities

Infrared photothermal (PT) radiometry was used to characterize liquid migration processes inducing depth dependent structural changes in condensed phase samples. Examples are drying of a sausage and the instability of margarine emulsion deliberately exposed to external heat.

Edge radiation -- a new source of infrared synchrotron radiation with very special characteristics

Electron storage rings have become very powerful sources of electromagnetic radiation covering a wide spectral range. In particular, the high-flux, long- wavelength infrared (IR) radiation from synchrotron light sources is increasingly used for spectroscopy in basic and applied research. Besides ordinary IR synchrotron radiation emitted from homogeneous magnetic dipole fields (i.e. dipole radiation DR), another high-brilliant source of IR radiation has been discovered recently, which is emitted by relativistic electrons traversing the inhomogeneous edge fields of bending magnets (i.e. edge radiation ER). In this paper a comparison is made between the very different radiation characteristics of DR and ER. Plans for the construction of a high-brilliant IR beamline at the storage ring DELTA, dedicated to an investigation of ER and to its use as a sensitive tool for electron-beam diagnostics, are presented. Moreover, various experiments for ellipsometry, FT-IR micro-spectroscopy and photothermal IR radiometry, exploiting the well-focussed, broadband IR-photon flux of high intensities are discussed.

Relative sensitivity of photomodulated reflectance and photothermal infrared radiometry to thermal and carrier plasma waves in semiconductors

A quantitative theoretical comparison between two photothermal techniques—the photomodulated reflectance (PMR) and the photothermal infrared radiometry (PTR)—from the standpoint of their relative sensitivity to the thermal and carrier plasma waves in semiconductors is presented. The coefficients representing the relative contributions from the thermal and plasma waves to the total PMR and PTR signals arising as a result of the same temperature increase and photoinjected excess carrier concentration are calculated for three crystalline semiconductors: Si, Ge, and GaAs. The PTR signal is found to be extremely sensitive to the plasma-wave effects exhibiting up to five orders of magnitude higher carrier plasma-to-thermal contrast than that of the PMR method.