Primary Photosynthetic Reactions Research Articles

Difference in the toxic effects of micro and nano ZnO particles on L. minor - an integrative approach.

The toxicity of nano-sized ZnO particles (nZnO) was evaluated and compared to that of their micro-sized counterparts (mZnO) using an integrative approach to investigate the mechanism of toxicity, utilizing duckweed (Lemna minor) as plant model. Following 7days of exposure to nZnO or mZnO (2.5, 5, 25, and 50mg L-1) growth rate, photosynthesis, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity parameters have been determined in duckweed. Phytotoxicity of both ZnO forms at relatively low concentrations was due to the release of free Zn ions into the nutrient media. However, the accumulation of Zn in plants treated with nZnO was significantly higher than in those treated with mZnO. Both mZnO and nZnO significantly reduced growth rate and impaired the functionality of the photosynthetic apparatus as evidenced by structural changes of chloroplasts, a decline in the efficiency of photosystem II, and chlorophyll a content. Additionally, exposure to mZnO and nZnO resulted in the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), increased lipid peroxidation, the formation of carbonylated proteins, DNA damage, and alterations in antioxidant defense mechanisms. Overall, nZnO caused significantly stronger toxic effects than mZnO. The mechanism of nZnO toxicity to L. minor, as determined by multivariate statistical analysis, involved the disruption of primary photosynthetic reactions due to a redox imbalance in the cell caused by the enhanced absorption of Zn into plant tissues.

Different Responses to Water Deficit of Two Common Winter Wheat Varieties: Physiological and Biochemical Characteristics.

Since water scarcity is one of the main risks for the future of agriculture, studying the ability of different wheat genotypes to tolerate a water deficit is fundamental. This study examined the responses of two hybrid wheat varieties (Gizda and Fermer) with different drought resistance to moderate (3 days) and severe (7 days) drought stress, as well as their post-stress recovery to understand their underlying defense strategies and adaptive mechanisms in more detail. To this end, the dehydration-induced alterations in the electrolyte leakage, photosynthetic pigment content, membrane fluidity, energy interaction between pigment-protein complexes, primary photosynthetic reactions, photosynthetic and stress-induced proteins, and antioxidant responses were analyzed in order to unravel the different physiological and biochemical strategies of both wheat varieties. The results demonstrated that Gizda plants are more tolerant to severe dehydration compared to Fermer, as evidenced by the lower decrease in leaf water and pigment content, lower inhibition of photosystem II (PSII) photochemistry and dissipation of thermal energy, as well as lower dehydrins' content. Some of defense mechanisms by which Gizda variety can tolerate drought stress involve the maintenance of decreased chlorophyll content in leaves, increased fluidity of the thylakoid membranes causing structural alterations in the photosynthetic apparatus, as well as dehydration-induced accumulation of early light-induced proteins (ELIPs), an increased capacity for PSI cyclic electron transport and enhanced antioxidant enzyme activity (SOD and APX), thus alleviating oxidative damage. Furthermore, the leaf content of total phenols, flavonoids, and lipid-soluble antioxidant metabolites was higher in Gizda than in Fermer.

Comparative Analysis of Primary Photosynthetic Reactions Assessed by OJIP Kinetics in Three Brassica Crops after Drought and Recovery

Plant drought tolerance depends on adaptations of the photosynthetic apparatus to changing environments triggered by water deficit. The seedlings of three Brassica crops differing in drought sensitivity, Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata—white cabbage, Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala—kale, and Brassica rapa L. var. pekinensis—Chinese cabbage, were exposed to drought by withholding water. Detailed insight into the photosynthetic machinery was carried out when the seedling reached a relative water content of about 45% and after re-watering by analyzing the OJIP kinetics. The key objective of this study was to find reliable parameters for distinguishing drought−tolerant and drought-sensitive varieties before permanent structural and functional changes in the photosynthetic apparatus occur. According to our findings, an increase in the total performance index (PItotal) and structure–function index (SFI), positive L and K bands, total driving forces (ΔDF), and drought resistance index (DRI) suggest drought tolerance. At the same time, susceptible varieties can be distinguished based on negative L and K bands, PItotal, SFI, and the density of reaction centers (RC/CS0). Kale proved to be the most tolerant, Chinese cabbage was moderately susceptible, and white cabbage showed high sensitivity to the investigated drought stress. The genetic variation revealed among the selected Brassica crops could be used in breeding programs and high-precision crop management.

Response of Pea Plants (Pisum sativum cv. Ran 1) to NaCl Treatment in Regard to Membrane Stability and Photosynthetic Activity.

Salinity is one of the most extreme abiotic stress factors that negatively affect the development and productivity of plants. The salt-induced injuries depend on the salt tolerance of the plant species, salt concentration, time of exposure and developmental stage. Here, we report on the response of pea plants (Pisum sativum L. cv Ran 1) to exposure to increasing salt concentrations (100, 150 and 200 mM NaCl) for a short time period (5 days) and the ability of the plants to recover after the removal of salt. The water content, membrane integrity, lipid peroxidation, pigment content and net photosynthetic rate were determined for the pea leaves of the control, treated and recovered plants. Salt-induced alterations in the primary photosynthetic reactions and energy transfer between the main pigment-protein complexes in isolated thylakoid membranes were evaluated. The pea plants were able to recover from the treatment with 100 mM NaCl, while at higher concentrations, concentration-dependent water loss, the disturbance of the membrane integrity, lipid peroxidation and an increase in the pigment content were detected. The net photosynthetic rate, electron transport through the reaction centers of PSII and PSII, activity of PSIIα centers and energy transfer between the pigment-protein complexes were negatively affected and were not restored after the removal of NaCl.

Acclimation Response of Green Microalgae Chlorella Sorokiniana to 2,3',4,4',6-Pentachlorobiphenyl.

The effect of the toxicant 2,3',4,4',6-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB-119) on the growth, chlorophyll content, and PSII activity of C. sorokiniana cells was investigated. A strong negative effect of the toxicant was observed at PCB concentration of 0.05 μg mL-1 , when culture growth ceased, chlorophyll strongly bleached, and cell death occurred. The use of original highly sensitive fluorimeter to measure three types of high-resolution chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics allowed us to detect an initial dramatic decrease in the activity of primary photosynthetic reactions, followed by their almost complete recovery at the end of the incubation period when most cells were dead. The study of the distribution of individual cells in culture in terms of Fv /Fm parameter, which reflects the quantum yield of PSII photochemistry, revealed the existence of 2-3% of cells retaining high Fv /Fm (>0.7) in the presence of the toxicant. The treated cultures were able to resume growth after prolonged incubation in fresh medium. The high sensitivity fluorescence methods used made it possible to identify stress-resistant cells which maintain high photosynthetic activity in the presence of lethal doses of toxic substances; these cells provide recovery of the population after stress.

Progress on photosynthetic nitrogen assimilation and its regulatory mechanisms in cyanobacteria

水华蓝藻的生物学特性及其竞争优势、蓝藻水华的形成与维持机制等科学问题，一直是国内外研究的热点。氮素是诱发蓝藻水华暴发的重要营养盐，蓝藻对氮素的同化与其光合作用密切偶联。然而，水体中氮素存在多种形态，不同形态氮素对蓝藻生长和水华发生的影响具有显著差异。因此，了解蓝藻光合作用特征及其同化不同形态氮素的机制和策略，对深入理解蓝藻水华的发生机理具有重要意义。本文在蓝藻的光能捕获与激发能转移、光合电子传递、碳浓缩机制及CO₂同化等光合作用过程及其特征综述的基础上，对蓝藻摄取、同化5种主要氮素形态（NO₃^-、NO₂^-、NH₄⁺、尿素和N₂）的分子机制及其特征进行了解读，总结了蓝藻细胞光合碳、氮同化的耦合关系及调控机制；并指出了该领域的未来发展方向，以推动该方向的深入研究。;The biological characteristics and competitive predominance of cyanobacteria, as well as the formation and maintenance mechanism of cyanobacteria blooms, have aroused continuous interests among researchers. As an important nutrient for cyanobacterial growth, the assimilation of nitrogen is intimately coupled with the photosynthesis. However, nitrogen exists in various chemical forms in water, which affect the cyanobacterial growth and the formation of blooms in distinct ways. To delve into the formation mechanism of cyanobacterial blooms, it is important to understand the cyanobacterial photosynthetic feature as well as the mechanism and strategy by which the nitrogen of different forms are assimilated into cyanobacteria. This paper reviewed the processes and characteristics of photosynthesis in cyanobacteria, such as light energy capture and excitation energy transfer, primary photosynthetic reaction, CO₂ concentrating mechanism and assimilation. Then, it illustrated the transport and assimilation of different nitrogen forms (NO₃^-, NO₂^-, NH₄⁺, urea and N₂), the regulation of these processes, as well as the mechanisms by which cells coordinate and regulate the carbon/nitrogen metabolism. The paper also summarized the latest research advances in cyanobacterial blooms and suggested on the content and direction of further research.

Binding Properties of Photosynthetic Herbicides with the QB Site of the D1 Protein in Plant Photosystem II: A Combined Functional and Molecular Docking Study.

Photosystem II (PSII) is a multi-subunit enzymatic complex embedded in the thylakoid membranes responsible for the primary photosynthetic reactions vital for plants. Many herbicides used for weed control inhibit PSII by interfering with the photosynthetic electron transport at the level of the D1 protein, through competition with the native plastoquinone for the QB site. Molecular details of the interaction of these herbicides in the D1 QB site remain to be elucidated in plants. Here, we investigated the inhibitory effect on plant PSII of the PSII-inhibiting herbicides diuron, metobromuron, bentazon, terbuthylazine and metribuzin. We combined analysis of OJIP chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics and PSII activity assays performed on thylakoid membranes isolated from pea plants with molecular docking using the high-resolution PSII structure recently solved from the same plant. Both approaches showed for terbuthylazine, metribuzin and diuron the highest affinity for the D1 QB site, with the latter two molecules forming hydrogen bonds with His215. Conversely, they revealed for bentazon the lowest PSII inhibitory effect accompanied by a general lack of specificity for the QB site and for metobromuron an intermediate behavior. These results represent valuable information for future design of more selective herbicides with enhanced QB binding affinities to be effective in reduced amounts.

Effect of thiamethoxam on photosynthetic pigments and primary photosynthetic reactions in two maize genotypes (Zea mays).

Neonicotinoid insecticides are used against the wide range of pests to protect plants. The influence of neonicotinoids on target and non-target insects is well understood. Hence, there are controversial opinions about the effect of neonicotinoids on the plants. We investigated pigments and photosynthetic primary reactions in two maize genotypes (the inbred line zppl 225 and hybrid zp 341) under thiamethoxam (TMX) treatment by root irrigation. It was found that the effect of TMX depended on pesticide application techniques and selection of maize genotype. TMX was added to the soil by root irrigation on the 4th and 8th days after planting, and photosynthetic characteristics monitored on the 10th and 12th days after planting. The primary photochemical reactions in PSII (Fv/Fm) of both maize genotypes were not affected under two variants of TMX treatment during all growing period. The hybrid zp341 was shown to be more susceptible to both TMX treatments, demonstrating a decrease in photosynthetic characteristics (JIP-test parameters) as well as changes in the content of pigments and in the conformation of the carotenoid molecule. Our findings suggest that the combination of fluorescence method and Raman spectroscopy is a perspective tool for monitoring plant state under pesticide application.

Fluorimetric Analysis of the Impact of Coal Sludge Pollution on Phytoplankton

The results of biomonitoring of the Olkhovaya River (Donetsk oblast) are presented. The impact of mine sludge waste on the state of surface water was shown. The assessment of physical and chemical parameters made it possible to characterize the water in the Olkhovaya River as dirty and polluted with a large number of suspended coal particles, whose content significantly exceeded the maximum permissible standards. The decrease in the content of chlorophyll in water samples taken below the sludge drains into the riverbed was determined by the fluorimetric method. The results of analysis of chlorophyll fluorescence induction curves are presented. It was found that contamination by sludge drains leads to disruption of primary photosynthetic reactions in phytoplankton cells.

High-Pressure Modulation of Primary Photosynthetic Reactions.

Photochemical charge separation is key to biological solar energy conversion. Although many features of this highly quantum-efficient process have been described, others remain poorly understood. Herein, ultrafast fluorescence barospectroscopy is used for the first time to obtain insights into the mechanism of primary charge separation in a YM210W mutant bacterial reaction center under novel surrounding modulating conditions. Over a range of applied hydrostatic pressures reaching 10 kbar, the rate of primary charge separation monotonously increased and that of the electron transfer to secondary acceptor decreased. While the inferred free energy gap for charge separation generally narrowed with increasing pressure, a pressure-induced break of a protein-cofactor hydrogen bond observed at ∼2 kbar significantly (by 219 cm-1 or 27 meV) increased this gap, resulting in a drop in fluorescence. The findings strongly favor a model for primary charge separation that incorporates charge recombination and restoration of the excited primary pair state, over a purely sequential model. We show that the main reason for the almost threefold acceleration of the primary electron transfer rate is the pressure-induced increase of the electronic coupling energy, rather than a change of activation energy. We also conclude that across all applied pressures, the primary electron transfer in the mutant reaction center studied can be considered nonadiabatic, normal region, and thermally activated.

Effect of differently methyl-substituted ionic liquids on Scenedesmus obliquus growth, photosynthesis, respiration, and ultrastructure

Concerns have been raised regarding the ecotoxicity of ionic liquids (ILs) owing to their wide usage in numerous fields. Three imidazolium chloride ILs with different numbers of methyl substituents, 1-decyl-imidazolium chloride ([C10IM]Cl), 1-decyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([C10MIM]Cl), and 1-decyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium chloride ([C10DMIM]Cl), were examined to assess their effects on growth, photosynthesis pigments content, chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthetic and respiration rate, and cellular ultrastructure of Scenedesmus obliquus. The results showed that algal growth was significantly inhibited by ILs treatments. The observed IC50,48h doses were 0.10 mg/L [C10IM]Cl, 0.01 mg/L [C10MIM]Cl, and 0.02 mg/L [C10DMIM]Cl. The chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll content declined, and the chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, minimal fluorescence yield (F0), maximal fluorescence yield (Fm), maximum quantum yield of PSII photochemistry (Fv/Fm), effective quantum yield of PSII [Y(II)], non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) and non-photosynthetic losses yield [Y(NO)] were notably affected by ILs in a dose-dependent manner. ILs affected the primary photosynthetic reaction, impaired heat dissipation capability, and diminished photosynthetic efficiency, indicating negative effects on photosystem II. The photosynthetic and respiration rates of algal cells were also reduced due to the ILs treatments. The adverse effects of ILs on plasmolysis and chloroplast deformation were examined using ultrastructural analyses; chloroplast swelling and lamellar structure almost disappeared after the [C10MIM]Cl treatment, and an increased number of starch grains and vacuoles was observed after all ILs treatments. The results indicated that one-methyl-substituted ILs were more toxic than non-methyl-substituted ILs, which were also more toxic than di-methyl-substituted ILs. The toxicity of the examined ILs showed the following order: [C10IM]Cl < [C10DMIM]Cl ≤ [C10MIM]Cl.

Simulation of chlorophyll fluorescence rise and decay kinetics, and P700-related absorbance changes by using a rule-based kinetic Monte-Carlo method.

A model of primary photosynthetic reactions in the thylakoid membrane was developed and its validity was tested by simulating three types of experimental kinetic curves: (1) the light-induced chlorophyll a fluorescence rise (OJIP transients) reflecting the stepwise transition of the photosynthetic electron transport chain from the oxidized to the fully reduced state; (2) the dark relaxation of the flash-induced fluorescence yield attributed to the QA- oxidation kinetics in PSII; and (3) the light-induced absorbance changes near 820 or 705nm assigned to the redox transitions of P700 in PSI. A model was implemented by using a rule-based kinetic Monte-Carlo method and verified by simulating experimental curves under different treatments including photosynthetic inhibitors, heat stress, anaerobic conditions, and very high light intensity.

A tribute to Ulrich Heber (1930-2016) for his contribution to photosynthesis research: understanding the interplay between photosynthetic primary reactions, metabolism and the environment.

The dynamic and efficient coordination of primary photosynthetic reactions with leaf energization and metabolism under a wide range of environmental conditions is a fundamental property of plants involving processes at all functional levels. The present historical perspective covers 60years of research aiming to understand the underlying mechanisms, linking major breakthroughs to current progress. It centers on the contributions of Ulrich Heber who had pioneered novel concepts, fundamental methods, and mechanistic understanding of photosynthesis. An important first step was the development of non-aqueous preparation of chloroplasts allowing the investigation of chloroplast metabolites ex vivo (meaning that the obtained results reflect the in vivo situation). Later on, intact chloroplasts, retaining their functional envelope membranes, were isolated in aqueous media to investigate compartmentation and exchange of metabolites between chloroplasts and external medium. These studies elucidated metabolic interaction between chloroplasts and cytoplasm during photosynthesis. Experiments with isolated intact chloroplasts clarified that oxygenation of ribulose-1.5-bisphosphate generates glycolate in photorespiration. The development of non-invasive optical methods enabled researchers identifying mechanisms that balance electron flow in the photosynthetic electron transport system avoiding its over-reduction. Recording chlorophyll a (Chl a) fluorescence allowed one to monitor, among other parameters, thermal energy dissipation by means of 'nonphotochemical quenching' of the excited state of Chl a. Furthermore, studies both in vivo and in vitro led to basic understanding of the biochemical mechanisms of freezing damage and frost tolerance of plant leaves, to SO2 tolerance of tree leaves and dehydrating lichens and mosses.

An analysis of the distribution of key metabolic fluxes in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cells under the conditions of a sulfur deficit

A stoichiometric model that combines the reactions of central metabolism and the electron transport processes of respiration and primary photosynthetic reactions in a plant cell is considered. The central metabolic reactions, including glycolysis, the Calvin cycle, and the Krebs cycle, are associated with electrontransport processes via the NAD(P)H redox equivalents. The model is defined by algebraic equations and includes rules that enable the description of the change in the direction of metabolism dependent on the availability of different carbon sources. Experimental data on the changes of the levels of individual cellular metabolites in the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii under the conditions of sulfur deprivation were used to verify the model. The model allowed the generalization of the existing concepts of the changes in the direction of metabolic fluxes under the conditions of sulfur starvation.

What about the detoxification mechanisms underlying ozone sensitivity in Liriodendron tulipifera?

Liriodendron tulipifera (known as the tulip tree) is a woody species that has been previously classified as sensitive to ozone (O3) in terms of visible leaf injuries and photosynthetic primary reactions. The objective of this work is to give a thorough description of the detoxification mechanisms that are at the basis of O3 sensitivity. Biochemical and molecular markers were used to characterize the response of 1-year-old saplings exposed to O3 (120ppb, 5hday-1, for 45 consecutive days) under controlled conditions. O3 effects resulted in a less efficient metabolism of Halliwell-Asada cycle as confirmed by the diminished capacity to convert the oxidized forms of ascorbate and glutathione in the reduced ones (AsA and GSH, respectively). The reduced activity of AsA and GSH regenerating enzymes indicates that de novo AsA biosynthesis occurred. This compound could be a cofactor of several plant-specific enzymes that are involved in the early part of the phenylpropanoid and flavonoid biosynthesis pathway, as confirmed by the significant rise of PAL activity (+75%). The induction of the defence-related secondary metabolites (in particular, rutin and caffeic acid were about threefold higher) and the concomitant increase in transcript levels of PAL and CHS genes (+120 and 30%, respectively) suggest that L. tulipifera utilized this route in order to partially counteract the O3-induced oxidative damage.

Crosstalk between chloroplast thioredoxin systems in regulation of photosynthesis.

Thioredoxins (TRXs) mediate light-dependent activation of primary photosynthetic reactions in plant chloroplasts by reducing disulphide bridges in redox-regulated enzymes. Of the two plastid TRX systems, the ferredoxin-TRX system consists of ferredoxin-thioredoxin reductase (FTR) and multiple TRXs, while the NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductase (NTRC) contains a complete TRX system in a single polypeptide. Using Arabidopsis plants overexpressing or lacking a functional NTRC, we have investigated the redundancy and interaction between the NTRC and Fd-TRX systems in regulation of photosynthesis in vivo. Overexpression of NTRC raised the CO2 fixation rate and lowered non-photochemical quenching and acceptor side limitation of PSI in low light conditions by enhancing the activation of chloroplast ATP synthase and TRX-regulated enzymes in Calvin-Benson cycle (CBC). Overexpression of NTRC with an inactivated NTR or TRX domain partly recovered the phenotype of knockout plants, suggesting crosstalk between the plastid TRX systems. NTRC interacted in planta with fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, phosphoribulokinase and CF1 γ subunit of the ATP synthase and with several chloroplast TRXs. These findings indicate that NTRC-mediated regulation of the CBC and ATP synthesis occurs both directly and through interaction with the ferredoxin-TRX system and is crucial when availability of light is limiting photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis and antioxidative defense mechanisms in deciphering drought stress tolerance of crop plants

Crop plants are regularly exposed to an array of abiotic and biotic stresses, among them drought stress is a major environmental factor that shows adverse effects on plant growth and productivity. Because of this these factors are considered as hazardous for crop production. Drought stress elicits a plethora of responses in plants resulting in strict amendments in physiological, biochemical, and molecular processes. Photosynthesis is the most fundamental physiological process affected by drought due to a reduction in the CO2 assimilation rate and disruption of primary photosynthetic reactions and pigments. Drought also expedites the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), triggering a cascade of antioxidative defense mechanisms, and affects many other metabolic processes as well as affecting gene expression. Details of the drought stress-induced changes, particularly in crop plants, are discussed in this review, with the major points: 1) leaf water potentials and water use efficiency in plants under drought stress; 2) increased production of ROS under drought leading to oxidative stress in plants and the role of ROS as signaling molecules; 3) molecular responses that lead to the enhanced expression of stress-inducible genes; 4) the decrease in photosynthesis leading to the decreased amount of assimilates, growth, and yield; 5) the antioxidant defense mechanisms comprising of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants and the other protective mechanisms; 6) progress made in identifying the drought stress tolerance mechanisms; 7) the production of transgenic crop plants with enhanced tolerance to drought stress.

Cryo-imaging of photosystems and phycobilisomes in Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 cells

Primary photosynthetic reactions take place inside thylakoid membrane where light-to-chemical energy conversion is catalyzed by two pigment-protein complexes, photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII). Light absorption in cyanobacteria is increased by pigment-protein supercomplexes — phycobilisomes (PBSs) situated on thylakoid membrane surfaces that transfer excitation energy into both photosystems. We have explored the localization of PSI, PSII and PBSs in thylakoid membrane of native cyanobacteria cell Anabaena sp. 7120 by means of cryogenic confocal microscopy. We have adapted a conventional temperature controlling stage to an Olympus FV1000 confocal microscope. The presence of red shifted emission of chlorophylls from PSI has been confirmed by spectral measurements. Confocal fluorescence images of PSI (in a spectral range 710–750nm), PSII (in a spectral range 690–705nm) and PBSs (in a spectral range 650–680nm) were recorded at low temperature. Co-localization of images showed spatial heterogeneity of PSI, PSII and PBSs over the thylakoid membrane, and three dominant areas were identified: PSI-PSII-PBS supercomplex area, PSII-PBS supercomplex area and PSI area. The observed results were discussed with regard to light-harvesting regulation in cyanobacteria.

A Comparison Between Plant Photosystem I and Photosystem II Architecture and Functioning

Oxygenic photosynthesis is indispensable both for the development and maintenance of life on earth by converting light energy into chemical energy and by producing molecular oxygen and consuming carbon dioxide. This latter process has been responsible for reducing the CO2 from its very high levels in the primitive atmosphere to the present low levels and thus reducing global temperatures to levels conducive to the development of life. Photosystem I and photosystem II are the two multi-protein complexes that contain the pigments necessary to harvest photons and use light energy to catalyse the primary photosynthetic endergonic reactions producing high energy compounds. Both photosystems are highly organised membrane supercomplexes composed of a core complex, containing the reaction centre where electron transport is initiated, and of a peripheral antenna system, which is important for light harvesting and photosynthetic activity regulation. If on the one hand both the chemical reactions catalysed by the two photosystems and their detailed structure are different, on the other hand they share many similarities. In this review we discuss and compare various aspects of the organisation, functioning and regulation of plant photosystems by comparing them for similarities and differences as obtained by structural, biochemical and spectroscopic investigations.

Effects of short-term phloem girdling on physiology in two desert plants in the southern edge of the Taklimakan Desert

Aims Our general objective was to understand the effects of short-term phloem girdling on physiological performance in Karelinia caspia and Alhagi sparsifolia, concerning not only the impacts of degrees of girdling but also the differences in damage between the two plants under girdling treatment. Specifically, we want to know the mechanisms of the decline in photosynthesis under girdling treatment. Methods We imposed three different types of girdling treatments, normal branch, semi-girdling, and full-girdling, and studied the reaction of photosynthetic pigments, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters in K. caspia and A. sparsifolia under the conditions of girdling after about 10 days. Important findings The effects varied with the type of girdling treatments and differed between K. caspia and A. sparsifolia. There was no apparent effect on physiological parameters in K. caspia with semi-girdling treatment; whereas full-girdling significantly reduced chlorophyll content and carotenoids content in both K. caspia and A. sparsifolia. The full-girdling also constrained the primary photosynthetic reaction in K. caspica and A. sparsifolia, and damaged the structure and function of photosystem II (PSII), leading to reduction in the activity of PSII. The processes of absorption, transmission, conversion, and electron capture of light energy in photosynthetic organs were also constrained, and the energy used for dissipate significantly increased. We believe the degree of damage in K. caspia under full-girdling is more severe than in A. sparsifolia. As the disturbance in Cele Oasis is further exacerbated, whether the population of A. sparsifolia could adapt to this change better than K. caspia is still inclusive, because the resilience of plants is also an essential factor. There exist a carbohydrate-dependent mechanism in the effects on photosynthetic rate in K. caspia and A. sparsifolia subjected to girdling.